Vulnerability of Pastoralism: A Case Study from the High Mountainsof Nepal
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Collection and Anlysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Changing Livelihood of the Pastoral Communities
3.2. Vulnerability and Adaptation of the Pastoral Communitiesto Climate Change
- National policy and institutional frameworks,
- Modernization and changing social values,
- Climate change impacts.
3.2.1. National Policy and Institutional Frameworks
3.2.2. Modernization and Changing Social Values
3.2.3. Climate Change Impacts
3.3. Adaptation Strategies
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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General Information | Makalu Barun NP | Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA) | Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) |
---|---|---|---|
District | Shankhuwasawa | Gorkha | Lamjung and Mustang |
Municipality | Mahakulung RM | Tsumhbri RM (Loo and Sirdibas) | Marsyangadi (Ghermu) & Thasang RM |
Altitudes for grazing (msl) | 1500–4500 | 1700–4500 | 1500–5166 |
No. of households () | 839 | ||
No. of Goths/ herds | 48 headers | 40 | 97—Lamjung case |
Avg. livestock numbers (LU)/households | 10 | 15 | 20 |
Livestock types | Yak, Chauri, Cow/ox, Sheep and Goat, Buffalo (only low altitude), | Yak, Chauri, Cow/ox, Buffalo Sheep and Goat | Cow/ox, Buffalo, Sheep and Goat, Yak/Chauri- (Mustang only) |
Livestock numbers trend | decreasing | decreasing | decreasing |
Trend Transhumance system practices at HH (%) decreasing | 35% | 40% | 50% |
Transhumance system | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Major crops | Millet/ Rice/Maize | Millet/ Barley /Maize/Potato | Millet/ Maize/ Potato/ Barley |
Major income from livestock (%) | 46 | 64(livestock and crops) | 67 (livestock and crops) |
Major ethnic groups (> 60%) | Rai/Limbu | Gurung | Gurung-Lamjung Thakali-Mustang |
Food security from local production—months | 3–4 | 4–7 | 4–6 |
Study Sites District | Rural Municipalities (RM) and Village | No. of Herders/Household Interviews | No. of Focus Group Discussions | No. of Key Informant Interviews |
---|---|---|---|---|
Makalu-Barun, NP-Sankhuwasabha | Mahakulung RM | 48 | 1 | 13 |
Manasolu Conservation Area—Gorkha | Tsumhbri RM (Loo and Sirdibas) | 63 | 1 | 10 |
Annapurna Conservation Area—Lamjung | Marsyangadi RM Ghermu | 33 | 1 | 8 |
Annapurna Conservation Area—Mustang | Thasang RM | 42 | 1 | 7 |
Income Source | Makalu Barun NP | MCA | ACA—Lamjung | ACA—Mustang |
---|---|---|---|---|
Livestock | 46.27 | 29.5 | 50.5 | 50.5 |
Agriculture | 9.4 | 35 | 5 | 10 |
Tourism | 2.44 | 1 | 5 | 24 |
Remittance | 5.0 | 5 | 15 | 6 |
Job/Labor | 33.3 | 20 | 10 | 5 |
Non-timber Forest Products | 2.0 | 8 | 5 | 5 |
Study Sites | Species (Number) | Total Killed (Number) | Total Compensation (NRs *) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sheep/Goat | Cow | Ox/Calf | Chauri/Yak | |||
Malaku Barun National Park | 18 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 21 | 30,000 |
Manasulu Conservation Area | 72 | 1 | 8 | 81 | 918,100 | |
Annupurna Conservation Area | 42 | 4 | 4 | 50 | 177,350 |
Study Sites | Year | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017/2018 | |
Malaku Barun National Park (MBNP) | 1083 | 1270 | 833 | 1537 | 2358 |
Manasulu Conservation Area (MCA) | 5331 | 5658 | 2287 | 5747 | 7203 |
Annupurna Conservation Area (ACA) | 124,998 | 1,144,481 | 83,419 | 144,409 |
Climate Change Perceptions | Makalu Barun National Park | Manasulu Conservation Area (MCA) | Annupurna Conservation Area (ACA) |
---|---|---|---|
Increase temperature | 65.5 | 77 | 79 |
Increased snow melting | 70.3 | 80 | 85 |
Total rainfall decreasing | 60. 4 | 60 | 90 |
Amount of snowfall decreased | 60.2 | 65 | 91 |
Decrease in water sources | 60.1 | 70.4 | 71 |
Pasture resources | 70 | 75.5 | 65.2 |
Invasive species | 75 | 65 | 68 |
Livestock disease increased | 20 | 33 | 30 |
Main Disaster | Main Livestock Species | Numbers of Animals Lost | Estimated Loss (NRs) | General Location |
---|---|---|---|---|
Avalanche | Sheep and yak | 250 | Manang district (ACA) | |
Snowstorm | Sheep and Yak | 1634 | 53,085,000 | Manang/ACA) |
Snow and Avalanches | Sheep and Goat | 3921 | Mustang (ACA) | |
Snow and Avalanches | Yak | 522 | Mustang (ACA) | |
Landslide | Goat, Buffalo | 709 | 134,219,000 | Different part of mountain region |
Adaptation Strategy | Makalu Barun NP | MCA | ACA |
---|---|---|---|
Seasonal vertical movement of animals | 100 | 100 | 100 |
Migration from village for work elsewhere | 70 | 70 | 65 |
Rangeland improvement activities (water source protection, seeding and improved grass cultivation) | 50 | 30 | 30 |
Decrease in livestock numbers | 30–35 | 20–30 | 30–40 |
Adaptation Strategy | Government Institutional Level | Community Level | Household Level |
---|---|---|---|
Mobility (Vertical movement) | Grazing permit, local government tax, Rotational grazing provision | Traditional Institutions as well as Park authorities grazing use decisions | Change in livestock numbers, species |
Range land management | Policy, guidelines formulation, Water source protection, removal of invasive species, rotational grazing, improved grass Seeding (outside National Park), water supply | Plantation of the fodder and grasses in communal land Resource conservation and monitoring | Household participate for trail improvement, water sources protection, fencing the grass land, seeding grasses during fallow periods in the rangeland |
Diversification (off farm income, communal pooling, conflict management, herding livestock) | Promotion of the off-farm activities, Institutions (Buffer Zone committees, Conservation Area Management Committees) formation, Improve physical facility, support livestock development program | Buffer Zone provide different livelihood options, Livestock insurance, Tourisms promotions, off farm activities, Loan through cooperatives, Income generation activities | Income diversification (Labor/off farm income/tourism, remittance), |
Market assess-increased the adaptation | Road connections, infrastructure development for marketing promotion | Cooperatives, commodities, User groups cooperation, Facilitation of marketing strategies | Access to domestic livestock markets in cities, new process value added products (wool clothes, cheese, butter, ghee, non-timber forest products etc. |
Intensifications | Facility for Input availability, Service provide for farm intensification: e.g., Improve Vet service, seed, fertility | Common land management, irrigation management, dairy products collections, feed resources availability | Improved livestock species, decreased numbers, plantation fodder and forage in private land, vegetable, fruits farming |
Storage | Inputs support | Crop residue, grain or grasses for winter feeding, grazing in fallow land | |
Promotion of traditional system | Traditional livestock farming promotion through festival of Yak/Churias tourism promotion (Taplanjung) Fresh Blood as medicinal use (Mustang) Horse riding competition (Kahaptad) |
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Tiwari, K.R.; Sitaula, B.K.; Bajracharya, R.M.; Raut, N.; Bhusal, P.; Sengel, M. Vulnerability of Pastoralism: A Case Study from the High Mountainsof Nepal. Sustainability 2020, 12, 2737. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072737
Tiwari KR, Sitaula BK, Bajracharya RM, Raut N, Bhusal P, Sengel M. Vulnerability of Pastoralism: A Case Study from the High Mountainsof Nepal. Sustainability. 2020; 12(7):2737. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072737
Chicago/Turabian StyleTiwari, Krishna Raj, Bishal Kumar Sitaula, Roshan Man Bajracharya, Nani Raut, Prabin Bhusal, and Mukunda Sengel. 2020. "Vulnerability of Pastoralism: A Case Study from the High Mountainsof Nepal" Sustainability 12, no. 7: 2737. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072737