1. Introduction
As highlighted by Schumpeter, entrepreneurship is the center of economic growth process [
1]. It plays a crucial role in economic development, job creation, innovation and competitiveness, in both developing and developed countries [
2]. To achieve the highest level of sustainable economic growth and employment, many countries make efforts to promote entrepreneurship. Additionally, entrepreneurship has been increasingly attracting more attention from governments and researchers, largely in how young people can become entrepreneurs.
It is not surprising that a significant proportion of new ventures fail [
3,
4]. What happens to entrepreneurs when their business fails? Will they restart or exit from venture? The answer varies from time to time. Early study demonstrates that entrepreneurs have no motives to re-enter into a new business after firm failure, according to the logic of firm dynamics [
5]. Those who ever failed would exit out of entrepreneurship, ultimately because they have learned about their actual inferior capabilities. Only those with successful entrepreneurial performance are directed towards subsequent startup. However, recent studies have challenged this logic of firm dynamics theoretically and empirically. Scholars believe that both past failure and success reflect useful learning effects and enhance entrepreneurs’ experience and skills, so they are more likely to start again [
6]. In terms of entrepreneurs’ attributes, entrepreneurs are said to be resilient individuals with positive emotions, who would like to deal with stressful work situations [
7,
8]. They have qualities and abilities to recover from failure that actually provides valuable insights into the likelihood of serial entrepreneurship [
8,
9]. It is consistent with empirical evidence that habitual entrepreneurs are a widespread phenomenon. There are high proportions of serial entrepreneurs in Western countries such as U.S., Australia and Norway [
10,
11]. In addition, entrepreneurship by crowdfunding has represented a growing area of interest, and crowdfunding online proves to be the practice of funding a start-up company or project [
12,
13]. However, scholars also recommend that such crowdfunding platforms highlight the positive aspects of firm failure [
14].
It is concluded that most of existing literatures agree on the positive effect of business failure on subsequent re-startups, but they generally take Western countries as samples. In China, more and more young people are encouraged to enter into entrepreneurial ventures, and most of them would have to confront obstacles and even failures. How these young entrepreneurs perceive and respond to these difficulties is worthy of our study here, since our market environment differs from that of Western countries greatly.
Besides, it is emphasized that entrepreneurship study must compare different countries, as it is context-sensitive [
15]. We chose Mainland China and Taiwan as study samples from GEM database, for the two economies are culturally homogeneous, but they really stand for various economic contexts. According to Reynolds [
16], entrepreneurship is motivated by opportunity and necessity, with the former mostly happening in developed countries while the latter in developing ones. The above conclusion would be verified by comparing Chinese and Taiwanese samples on their entrepreneurial intention motivated by opportunity or necessity. Moreover, we also want to examine how these two motivations affect the relationship between past failure and entrepreneurial intention respectively. In addition, we acknowledge that cultural context of a given country is one of the determinants that exerts a great influence on entrepreneurial intent and practice [
17,
18]. Although Mainland China and Taiwan enjoy similar culture, we are not certain that such culture would favor or disfavor entrepreneurs socially, or if it would have a different effect since the two regions are at different economic status. Moreover, we also want a further study on what role culture plays in the associations between past failure and entrepreneurial planning.
Generally, the study is structured as follows: First, we investigate the direct effect of past failure on future entrepreneurial intention, then we examine how perceived capability passes the direct effect. Lastly, we explore how past failure works on entrepreneurial intention under the condition of entrepreneurial culture and motivation. All these analyses are based on the comparison of Mainland China and Taiwan, since the two regions are culturally homogeneous but economically heterogeneous.
The study supports the existing literatures, and one of the few theoretical contributions lies in the presence of entrepreneurial motivation. Entrepreneurial motivation is viewed as one of the contextual factors rather than cognitive factors of entrepreneurs, which complies with our framework on comparing Mainland China and Taiwan. Practically, the study provides some useful information for policy makers to design adequate measures which facilitate young people in becoming entrepreneurs.
4. Results
Our study compares the effect of business failure on individual entrepreneurs in Mainland China and Taiwan. All the hypotheses are supported and the results from empirical analysis suggest the following:
Firstly, age, gender and education are found to be closely associated with entrepreneurial intention, but these associations vary from regions. Older people and men usually have stronger intentions for enterprising activities in both Mainland China and Taiwan, complying with prior literatures [
37,
74]. However, education is quite different in the two regions; it actually has a positive impact in Mainland China yet no impact at all in Taiwan. This may be explained partly that average educational level for Taiwanese entrepreneurs is higher than that of Mainland China (M
T = 3.02, M
C = 3.97), and education may not be linked to entrepreneurial intention greatly in developed regions.
Secondly, our study reveals that past failure could promote an entrepreneur’s intention to start a new business in the future. This verifies the opinion that failure is more recognized as a major source to learn, and entrepreneurs with more skills and knowledge prepare better for new ventures [
21,
22]. This finding applies to samples in both Mainland China and Taiwan.
Thirdly, perceived capability mediates partly the relationship between past failure and future entrepreneurial intention. Business failure does affect individual entrepreneurs in a positive way, and a key benefit of failure is to provide entrepreneurs with learning opportunities so that they could develop their knowledge and skills, and furthermore, increase their subsequent enterprising intent [
27]. Similarly, Mainland China and Taiwan samples support the result.
Lastly, our study demonstrates the moderating roles of entrepreneurial culture and entrepreneurial motivation. As one of the contextual factors, entrepreneurial culture could not only boost the startup intention by itself but also establish a surrounding where those individuals who failed before are strongly encouraged in the pursuit of entrepreneurship. This is supported by Kibler, as he insists that only when an individual is embedded in where entrepreneurial activity is morally accepted or taken-for-granted, entrepreneurial failure could improve his or her certainty that startup is a beneficial career path [
48]. We find the similarities of average level of entrepreneurial culture (M
C = 0.678, M
T = 0.6493) and the moderating effect in Mainland China and Taiwan (see
Figure 2 and
Figure 3) implies that the two regions are culturally homogeneous.
Furthermore, we conclude that entrepreneurial motivation acts as a moderating role. It involves two things: (1) Entrepreneurial intention driven by motivation varies from samples. Chinese entrepreneurs are mainly driven by necessity while Taiwanese by opportunity; (2) Chinese entrepreneurs’ past failures influence their entrepreneurial intentions positively and significantly, only when these individuals have no choice but starting their own ventures, say necessity-driven entrepreneurship; for Taiwan entrepreneurs, such influence does exist only when they identify and seize good opportunities, say opportunity-driven entrepreneurship. The two things agree on the linkage of motivation and economic status [
16,
71].
5. Discussion
In this article, we make a comparative study on the associations of past failure on individual entrepreneurs in Mainland China and Taiwan. The results show that in both Mainland China and Taiwan, entrepreneurs’ experienced failures positively predict their planning to start a new firm in the future, and their perceived capabilities mediate the positive effect. This finding complies with the majority of existing literatures and pervasive entrepreneurial activities in practice as well. Entrepreneurial culture is found to play a similar role on individual entrepreneurs in Mainland China and Taiwan, while entrepreneurial motivation works contrarily in both regions.
5.1. Theoretical and Practical Implications
Our comparative study supports the existing literatures; one of the few theoretical contributions lies in the presence of entrepreneurial motivation. We view entrepreneurial motivation as one of many contextual factors rather than personal factors of entrepreneurs. Our motivation is actually closely related to the level of economic growth, while intrinsic or extrinsic motivation is self-related and determined by an entrepreneur’s perceptions. Context-related motivation is categorized into opportunity-driven and necessity-driven, with the former mostly happening in developed countries while the latter in developing ones [
16]. This complies with the framework on comparing Mainland China and Taiwan. We verify the moderating effect of entrepreneurial motivation and thus extend the previous works on the associations of past failure and subsequent entrepreneurship.
Our findings suggest some potential implications for entrepreneurs and policy makers in Mainland China and Taiwan. The paper firstly provides a path for entrepreneurs to improve their skills and startup intention, and that is, entrepreneurs can learn a lot from previous failure. Entrepreneurs should compete with the anti-failure bias in both psychological and business terms. Secondly, policy makers are suggested to build an atmosphere to enhance the ambitions of experienced entrepreneurs. For example, they can set more positive entrepreneurial role models and promote the social legitimacy of entrepreneurship. Additionally, we find more necessity entrepreneurships in Mainland China, which reminds public authorities to do more to help active entrepreneurship. Local governments should make more attempts to support new firms in the field of funding, regulation, education and R&D transfer, and even some infrastructure and utilities.
5.2. Limitations and Future Directions
While the findings of this research present many useful results, several of the limitations must be noted. First, all the variables in our study, except entrepreneurial culture in the GEM database, are measured using a single item with a dichotomous scale. Too few response categories may loosely capture a respondent’s attitude and produce more conservative statistical results [
81]. Secondly, our study indicates that stronger entrepreneurial culture may predict more entrepreneurial intention and a more positive relationship between past failure and entrepreneurial intention. However, such conclusions do not imply that stronger entrepreneurial culture may always predict more successful entrepreneurship. This is probably because individuals in a highly entrepreneurial culture are simply more motivated to use their initiative and ingenuity in starting a new business [
82]. Whether they are successful will be determined by institutions, resources and other factors [
83], and these factors really deserve our future attention. Thirdly, study on Japanese samples deserves further consideration [
25]. Our future study can compare Mainland China, Taiwan and Japan, examining the differences of entrepreneurial culture and motivation among the three economies and seeing how the differences work on individual entrepreneurs separately. Last but not least, crowdfunding on ine would be a general tendency for entrepreneurship; how failure on the platform would influence the next enterprising and how the platform would help to avoid the fear of failure would also be our future focus, and a comparative study would be recommended.