Circles of Coastal Sustainability: A Framework for Coastal Management
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Assessment Gap Analysis
3. The Circles of Coastal Sustainability Approach
3.1. CCS Methodology and Interdependency between Domains
3.1.1. Coastal Context for the ‘Environment and Ecology’ Category
3.1.2. Coastal Context for the ‘Social and Cultural’ Category
3.1.3. Coastal Context for the ‘Economics’ Category
- The OECD’s [37] material well-being approach explores the diversity of activities that confer financial security to coastal livelihoods and the dependency of the populations on these activities. It includes jobs, housing, wealth, and income. For instance, fish-dependent communities can experience economic vulnerability, as they often face changes in fish stocks and rising costs of fishing effort, leading to lower incomes and other factors that threaten household and individual financial security [66]. These factors pose a risk to economic well-being and require policy responses [54].
- Assessment of the revenue contribution of each maritime and coastal-related activity to the development of maritime and coastal industries, and the importance that this sector has on the economy. For instance, in Spain, the tourism industry is the economic sector that generates the largest share of GDP of its coastal zones. Economic instabilities in this sector can compromise the economic well-being of coastal communities, as in the case of the decline of the oil and gas production industry in UK, which was one of the largest contributions to the UK’s GDP [54].
3.1.4. Coastal Context for the ‘Governance and Policy’ Category
3.1.5. The Circles of Coastal Sustainability Indicators
3.2. Communication of the CCS
4. Case Study
4.1. Results
4.1.1. Environment and Ecology
- Alteration of landscapes: It is estimated that there has been a 60% increase in artificial occupation on Spanish coasts from 1987–2011, such that 10.48% of the area up to 10 km from the coast is artificial. The percentage rises to 27.5% when the first 500 m is considered. In urban areas, such as Barcelona, Málaga, and Alicante, this increases up to 45% in the first 2 km from the coast [90] with 70% of the total artificial surface corresponding to residential areas.
- Ecosystem function: Data on biodiversity loss and on the state of provision of coastal and marine regulating ES indicate an alarming trend with vertebrate species classification as “critically endangered” [88]. Overfishing is identified as one of the main causes of biodiversity loss in the Mediterranean area, where the capture/biomass ratio is out of balance, coupled with a high trend in the presence of invasive alien species, representing possible threats for local and endemic species [90]. Coastal and marine regulating services and provision services (e.g., water regulation, maintenance of soil erosion and fertility, regulation against hazards, and biological control) are in decline, presenting worsening trends in both coastal and marine ecosystems [88].
- Global environmental change: This category used climate-change-related indicators, such as SLR, SST, and ocean acidification (OA), all of which are projected to increase [86].
- Shifts in hydrodynamics: Data from the “Strategy for climate change adaptation of the Spanish coast” point to an overall change in terms of wave height for 2070–2100 projections [89].
- Biogeochemical and physical flows: Nitrogen and phosphorus input points for nutrient footprints trespassed the “biogeochemical flows” planetary boundary in Spain in 2011 [65]. Freshwater cycles, water regulation, and provisioning services in aquifers and coastal systems, as well as water regulation services, are in decline [88]. Overexploitation of water resources is exacerbated by tourism, which consumes 3–4 times more water than a domestic resident. A total of 70% of the tourism in Spain is concentrated in areas at risk of water scarcity and drought. Peaks in water consumption also require optimization of residual water treatment, requiring design of treatment plants to support these peaks [90]. Regarding sediment cycles, it is estimated that around 69.73% of Spanish territory suffers from erosive processes [87], which can be related to the intense decline of coastal zones’ ability to control erosive processes [88].
4.1.2. Social and Cultural
- Societal benefits: Provisioning services (food, water, biotic materials, and renewable energy), regulating services associated with natural beach nourishment and natural hazard protection, and cultural services, such as recreation opportunities and aesthetic values, were assessed [88]. Except for renewable energy, with a mixed trend, all provisioning services had a worse/worsening declining trend in both coastal and marine environments [88]. Regulating services also presented declining trends (e.g., loss of coastal erosion regulation service), presenting a threat to coastal human settlements [88]. Recreational activities and aesthetic enjoyment services are declining, affecting the social well-being of local inhabitants, as well as the value as a touristic destination [88]. Coastal water quality was assessed as another variable to measure societal benefits, as it is linked to health, cultural, and economic aspects, as well as its importance for tourism [91]. In 2010, 80% of coastal waters had an excellent quality, while over 90% were classified with “sufficient” quality [92].
- Demographics: According to the Spanish National Statistics Institute, 44% of the population lived in coastal zones in 2010 [93], which can place pressures on public services, including proper sanitary facilities [90]. Other studies have shown that over 26% of the Spanish population was at risk of poverty or social exclusion, higher than the overall EU numbers [89].
- Social well-being: To measure social well-being, access to beaches, food security, and health were evaluated. Legislation establishes that beaches are a public domain, forbidding private uses to enhance the cultural services provided [94]. Food provision from coastal and marine sources has been experiencing a decline. Large-scale agriculture is the main source of food security in coastal zones [88]. As a proxy for health, bathing water quality was used to assess the occurrence of water-related diseases.
- Identity: “Sense of place” was used as an indicator of populations’ sense of belonging to nature. The authors of [88] found that this has been experiencing a declining trend in coastal zones attributable to the replacement of traditional lifestyles.
- Social resilience: This category examined vulnerability and education patterns along Spanish coasts. For vulnerability, the lack of data for social cohesion limited the assessment. To evaluate education, cultural services were assessed based on scientific knowledge, local ecological knowledge, and environmental education. For both coastal and marine ecosystems, this service has an increasing trend [88]. Environmental education initiatives exist in almost all coastal regions, helping to enhance citizen awareness of coastal and marine issues [95].
4.1.3. Economics
- Security: Livelihoods and employment patterns were examined. According to data from the Eurostat database [96], from 2005–2014, there was a 12.8% decline in employment along Spanish coasts. Aside from the crisis of 2008, decreases in the fisheries sector may relate to half of Spanish fishing grounds being fished beyond the safe biological limits of sustainability [88]. Employment patterns are seasonal, with large numbers of temporary jobs in the summer to meet the needs of the service and tourism sectors. In the shipbuilding industry, more qualified, permanent jobs exist [88].
- Infrastructure: In this category, energy supply, maritime transport, and tourism were assessed. In 2010, around 33% of energy generation came from renewable sources, and this is expected to increase [91]. The port industry is very important, with the Port of Algeciras in Andalucia being the most important in the Mediterranean region. The Port of Vigo in the Northwest Atlantic, the Port of Bilbao in the Gulf of Biscay, and the Port of Las Palmas in the Canary Islands are other examples of ports with intense activity. The Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands have high numbers of marinas and moorings, as well as dependency on maritime transport [91]. Tourism infrastructure is well developed, particularly in the Canary and the Balearic Islands and the coastal regions of Murcia, Valencia, and Catalunya [88].
- Economic well-being: Equality, income patterns, and housing were used to evaluate the economic well-being of the coastal populations, although data only exist at the national level. The Gini index [65] was used to assess equality patterns, where Spain scored 68.6 (out of 100) in 2011. For “the percentage of the population who earn above $1.9 a day” indicator, the country obtained the maximum score. Regarding housing affordability on the average income, bad trends were found [88]. Vacation rentals have become a major issue, where locals find it hard to find affordable long-term properties for rent in coastal cities (e.g., Barcelona and Palma de Mallorca).
- Industry: The analysis considered tourism, maritime transport, and shipbuilding. The tourism industry alone is responsible for the biggest share of revenue generation in Spanish coastal zones, employing around 272,174 people in 2011, leading to a high economic dependency on tourism (e.g., the Canary Islands) [91]. Regarding non-renewable industries, fisheries, aquaculture, and oil and gas industries were considered. The fisheries industry presents a declining trend, affecting the state of associated provisioning services [91]. In contrast, the aquaculture industry has a growing trend, particularly in Galicia [97]. Data for offshore oil and gas were limited, but for 2010, it is estimated that this sector had a revenue of 16 million Euros [91].
- Dependency: To assess the level of economic dependency on coastal resources and assets, the percentage of workforce per sector was used. According to a Eurostat analysis on European coasts, in 2010, about 10% of the workforce was engaged in the fisheries, agriculture, and forestry sectors in Spanish coastal zones. On the other hand, around 70% of the workforce was employed in the services sector, where tourism-related activities are predominant [98]. This output points out to a larger dependency on non-extractive activities (e.g., tourism).
4.1.4. Governance and Policy
- Organization: Citizen participation and interest were analyzed by the existence and typology of civil society associations and NGOs, which indicated that public participation in coastal governance is still below ideal. Only a few environmental-related associations and NGOs are dedicated to coastal-related issues. Many Autonomous Communities have mechanisms to stimulate public participation in environmental issues, a right that is safeguarded by the national Law 27/2006 of 18 of July.
- Law and justice: In 2010/2011, the coastal zone was regulated by the Law 22/1988, known as “Law of Coasts” (Ley de Costas), which establishes limits of the public domain, aiming to avoid private uses and re-establish public access where needed. It also included the classification of dunes and cliffs as public domain. This brought controversy due to the properties built and acquired before the legislation came into force that were converted into State property [99]. The legislation was criticized by the European Parliament, as it led to social instability by penalizing property owners due to actions of the Central Government, Autonomous Communities, and municipalities that allowed the unsustainable occupation of the coast in the first place. The law’s text was periodically altered before being substituted by a new law in 2013—diminishing the protection limit [94,99]. No normative instruments were found in any of the Autonomous Communities to regulate the adoption of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) [95]. Given the decentralized character of the government system, the existing coastal policies are extremely sectorized, where conflicts of interest between the different spheres of power often arise [100].
- Representation and power: Analyzing the World Bank indicators on Government Effectiveness and Voice and Accountability, Spain obtained good scores in 2011 [76]. Non-economic interest associations have been reported to have difficulty in influencing decision-making with relevant policy proposals [101], acting as a barrier to promotion of public participation [95]. The activist group “Greenpeace España” has released reports on the state of coastal ecosystems in Spain, such as “A toda costa”, reporting the excessive urbanization in Spanish coasts and demanding restoration actions by the public administrations [102].
- Legitimacy and accountability: This category measured legitimacy and accountability at a general level, not specifically regarding coastal issues. Using the World Bank indicators [76], for 2011, Spain scored 82 in Control of Corruption, which can be considered a good score.
- Resource management: Coastal management in Spain is characterized as sectorized within government administration, leading to a lack of policies at the national or Autonomous Community level to enforce ICZM, exacerbated by the 2008 crisis [95]. The Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Environment (formerly named MAGRAMA) suffered a cut of around 50% to its funding [90]. According to the Spanish National Ecosystem Assessment, around 70% of the coastal ecosystem services in the country are being poorly managed, highlighting the failure of current coastal management plans to conserve these ES [88].
4.1.5. Case Study Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Framework | Authors | Approach | Key focus | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|---|
Planetary Boundaries (PB) | Rockström et al. [35], Steffen et al. [36]. | Assessment of the state of biophysical thresholds at a planetary level. | Focuses on biophysical processes, measuring thresholds. | Does not include social, economic, and political aspects that ultimately drive the root causes resulting in the transcending of identified boundaries. |
Ocean Health Index | Halpern et al. [29] | Assessment of the state of the world’s oceans considering environmental, social, and economic variables. | Focuses on indicators relating ecosystem services to socio-economic aspects of ocean and coastal spaces and interdependency with human well-being. | Does not provide an analysis of the governance and policies related to coastal zones. |
Circles of Sustainability Framework | James et al. [23] | Assessment of sustainability in urban settlements integrating social, political, economic, and environmental spheres. | Focuses on assessing sustainability and on managing projects directed towards socially sustainable outcomes. Is mostly used for cities and urban settlements. | It was developed for urban applications, and does not offer a specific approach to coastal areas. |
How’s Life? | OECD [37] | Assessment of the promises and pitfalls for people’s well-being, highlighting the inequalities across OECD’s countries. | Exposes divisions according to age, gender, and education to deliver an assessment of people’s well-being using about 50 indicators. | Assesses socio-economic indicators only, aimed specifically at evaluating human well-being. |
Doughnut of Social and Planetary Boundaries (Safe and Just Space Framework) | Raworth [24,38] | Combination of PB and social thresholds, defining a “safe” space for human development within the doughnut. | Focuses on the social and ecological as two domains that underpin human well-being. Provides an important critique of literature on the interdependency between social shortfall and ecological overshoot. | Provides a holistic complement for the Planetary Boundaries framework by adding social and economic thresholds; it is general and not specific for coastal assessments. |
Ecosystem Services Framework | Atkins et al. [39] | Highlights the long-term role that healthy ecosystems play in the sustainable provision of human well-being, economic development, and poverty alleviation. | Focuses on how the efficient and effective management of ecosystems (living natural capital) can sustain the provision of vital ecosystem services. | Is often used to assess individual services, failing to provide a holistic outlook. |
Domain | Indicator Set Consulted | Category/Sub-Category | Suggested Indicators |
---|---|---|---|
Environment | Ecosystem Indicators for Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Services [72] SDG indicators (Targets 6.6; Goals 13 and 14) [73] Sendai Framework [74] U.S Environmental Protection Agency [75] Planetary Boundaries [36] | 1.Alterations of landscapes | |
Land |
| ||
Sea |
| ||
Shoreline |
| ||
2.Ecosystem function | |||
Biodiversity loss |
| ||
Services |
| ||
3.Global environmental change | |||
Climate change |
| ||
Natural change |
| ||
4.Shifts in hydrodynamics | |||
Waves and tides |
| ||
5. Biogeochemical and physical flows | |||
Nitrogen and phosphorus |
| ||
Carbon |
| ||
Freshwater cycles |
| ||
Sediment cycles |
| ||
Social and Cultural | Ecosystem Indicators for Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Services [72] How’s life? Framework [37] World Development Indicators [76] SDG indicator 6.1 [73] SUSTAIN indicator set [77] Ocean Health Index [55] Indicators Guidelines [78] Social Progress Index [79] FAO 2017 [80] Halpern et al. [81] Ocean Health Index [82] O’Neill et al. [65] United Nations 2012 [83] Depietri et al. [44] Mangroves for the future [84] | 1. Societal benefits | |
Goods and services |
| ||
Bathing water quality |
| ||
2. Demographics | |||
Population/age structure/trends |
| ||
Migration and immigration |
| ||
Social class |
| ||
3. Social well-being | |||
Recreation and access |
| ||
Food and water security |
| ||
Health |
| ||
4. Identify | |||
Sense of place/Sense of self |
| ||
5. Social resilience | |||
Vulnerability |
| ||
Education |
| ||
Economics | World Development Indicators [76] SDG indicators [73] Ocean Health Index [55] Ferrol-Schulte et al. [70] Mangroves for the future [84] Indicators Guidelines [78] SUSTAIN indicator set [77] Social Progress Index [79] OECD [85] | 1. Security | |
Livelihoods |
| ||
Gender |
| ||
Employment patterns |
| ||
2. Infrastructure | |||
Energy supply |
| ||
Transport |
| ||
Access |
| ||
3. Economic well-being | |||
Equality/Income/Housing |
| ||
4. Industry | |||
Renewable (non-extractive) |
| ||
Extractive |
| ||
5. Dependency | |||
Resource |
| ||
Diversity |
| ||
Governance and Policy | World Development Indicators [76] SDG indicators (5.5) [73] Depietri et al. [44] | 1. Organization | |
Civil and NGOs |
| ||
2. Law and justice | |||
Legislation |
| ||
Efficacy |
| ||
Enforcement |
| ||
3. Representation and power | |||
Effectiveness |
| ||
4. Legitimacy and accountability | |||
| |||
5. Coastal management | |||
Plans and management |
|
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Share and Cite
P. de Alencar, N.M.; Le Tissier, M.; Paterson, S.K.; Newton, A. Circles of Coastal Sustainability: A Framework for Coastal Management. Sustainability 2020, 12, 4886. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12124886
P. de Alencar NM, Le Tissier M, Paterson SK, Newton A. Circles of Coastal Sustainability: A Framework for Coastal Management. Sustainability. 2020; 12(12):4886. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12124886
Chicago/Turabian StyleP. de Alencar, Natália M., Martin Le Tissier, Shona K. Paterson, and Alice Newton. 2020. "Circles of Coastal Sustainability: A Framework for Coastal Management" Sustainability 12, no. 12: 4886. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12124886
APA StyleP. de Alencar, N. M., Le Tissier, M., Paterson, S. K., & Newton, A. (2020). Circles of Coastal Sustainability: A Framework for Coastal Management. Sustainability, 12(12), 4886. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12124886