Green Roofs and Green Walls for Biodiversity Conservation: A Contribution to Urban Connectivity?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Are Green Walls and Green Roofs Large Enough for Supporting Biodiversity?
3. Are Green Walls and Green Roofs Identical Habitats?
4. How Abundant Are Green Roof and Green Wall Patches in Cities?
5. How Redundant Are Green Roofs and Green Walls in Cities?
6. In the Connectivity of Green Walls and Roofs to the Ground-Level Green Spaces, Height and Landscapes also Matter
7. Implications for an Ecological Design and Management.
8. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Kowarik, I. Novel Urban Ecosystems, Biodiversity, and Conservation. Environ. Pollut. 2011, 159, 1974–1983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pickett, S.T.A.; Boone, C.G.; McGrath, B.P.; Cadenasso, M.L.; Childers, D.L.; Ogden, L.A.; McHale, M.; Grove, J.M. Ecological Science and Transformation to the Sustainable City. Cities 2013, 32, S10–S20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elmqvist, T.; Setälä, H.; Handel, S.; van der Ploeg, S.; Aronson, J.; Blignaut, J.; Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Nowak, D.; Kronenberg, J.; de Groot, R. Benefits of Restoring Ecosystem Services in Urban Areas. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2015, 14, 101–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lepczyk, C.A.; La Sorte, F.A.; Aronson, M.F.J.; Goddard, M.A.; MacGregor-Fors, I.; Nilon, C.H.; Warren, P.S. Global Patterns and Drivers of Urban Bird Diversity—Ecology and Conservation of Birds in Urban Environments; Murgui, E., Hedblom, M., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 13–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ives, C.D.; Lentini, P.E.; Threlfall, C.G.; Ikin, K.; Shanahan, D.F.; Garrard, G.E.; Bekessy, S.A.; Fuller, R.A.; Mumaw, L.; Rayner, L.; et al. Cities Are Hotspots for Threatened Species. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2016, 25, 117–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beninde, J.; Veith, M.; Hochkirch, A. Biodiversity in Cities Needs Space: A Meta-Analysis of Factors Determining Intra-Urban Biodiversity Variation. Ecol. Lett. 2015, 18, 581–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fuller, R.A.; Gaston, K.J. The Scaling of Green Space Coverage in European Cities. Biol. Lett. 2009, 5, 352–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shanahan, D.F.; Miller, C.; Possingham, H.P.; Fuller, R.A. The Influence of Patch Area and Connectivity on Avian Communities in Urban Revegetation. Biol. Conserv. 2011, 144, 722–729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lepczyk, C.A.; Aronson, M.F.J.; Evans, K.L.; Goddard, M.A.; Lerman, S.B.; Macivor, J.S. Biodiversity in the City: Fundamental Questions for Understanding the Ecology of Urban Green Spaces for Biodiversity Conservation. Bioscience 2017, 67, 799–807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahern, J. Urban Landscape Sustainability and Resilience: The Promise and Challenges of Integrating Ecology with Urban Planning and Design. Landsc. Ecol. 2013, 28, 1203–1212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vergnes, A.; Kerbiriou, C.; Clergeau, P. Ecological Corridors Also Operate in an Urban Matrix: A Test Case with Garden Shrews. Urban Ecosyst. 2013, 16, 511–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saura, S.; Bodin, Ö.; Fortin, M.J. Stepping Stones Are Crucial for Species’ Long-Distance Dispersal and Range Expansion through Habitat Networks. J. Appl. Ecol. 2014, 51, 171–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jim, C. Green-Space Preservation and Allocation for Sustainable Greening of Compact Cities. Cities 2004, 21, 311–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grimmond, C.S.B.; Cleugh, H.A.; Oke, T.R. An Objective Urban Heat Storage Model and Its Comparison with Other Schemes. Atmos. Environ. Part B 1991, 25, 311–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Darlington, A. Ecology of Walls; Heinemann: London, UK, 1981; ISBN 978-0435602239. [Google Scholar]
- Francis, R.A.; Lorimer, J. Urban Reconciliation Ecology: The Potential of Living Roofs and Walls. J. Environ. Manag. 2011, 92, 1429–1437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Haaland, C.; van den Bosch, C.K. Challenges and Strategies for Urban Green-Space Planning in Cities Undergoing Densification: A Review. Urban For. Urban Green. 2015, 14, 760–771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dover, J.W. Green Walls. In Green Infrastructure. Incorporating Plants and Enhancing Biodiversity in Buildings and Urban Environments; Dover, J.W., Ed.; Routledge: London, UK, 2015; ISBN 9780415521246. [Google Scholar]
- Fernández-Cañero, R.; Pérez Urrestarazu, L. Chapter 2.1—Vertical Greening Systems: Classifications, Plant Species, Substrates. In Nature Based Strategies for Urban and Building Sustainability; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 45–54. [Google Scholar]
- Oberndorfer, E.; Lundholm, J.; Bass, B.; Coffman, R.R.; Doshi, H.; Dunnett, N.; Gaffin, S.; Köhler, M.; Liu, K.K.Y.; Rowe, B. Green Roofs as Urban Ecosystems: Ecological Structures, Functions, and Services. Bioscience 2007, 57, 823–833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baguette, M.; Van Dyck, H. Landscape Connectivity and Animal Behavior: Functional Grain as a Key Determinant for Dispersal. Landsc. Ecol. 2007, 22, 1117–1129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Douglas, I.; Sadler, J.P. Urban Wildlife Corridors. Conduits for Movement or Linear Habitat? In The Routledge Handbook of Urban Ecology; Douglas, I., Goode, D., Houck, M.C., Wang, R., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2015; pp. 274–288. ISBN 9780415498135. [Google Scholar]
- Vijayaraghavan, K. Green Roofs: A Critical Review on the Role of Components, Benefits, Limitations and Trends. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 57, 740–752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jim, C.Y. Green Roof Evolution through Exemplars: Germinal Prototypes to Modern Variants. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2017, 35, 69–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mayrand, F.; Clergeau, P.; Vergnes, A.; Madre, F. Chapter 3.13—Vertical Greening Systems as Habitat for Biodiversity. In Nature Based Strategies for Urban and Building Sustainability; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 227–237. ISBN 978-0-12-812150-4. [Google Scholar]
- Francis, R.A. Wall Ecology: A Frontier for Urban Biodiversity and Ecological Engineering. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 2011, 35, 43–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, X.; Yin, X.; Wang, Y. Diversity and Ecology of Vascular Plants Established on the Extant World-Longest Ancient City Wall of Nanjing, China. Urban For. Urban Green. 2016, 18, 41–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Duchoslav, M. Flora and Vegetation of Stony Walls in East Bohemia (Czech Republic). Preslia 2002, 74, 1–25. [Google Scholar]
- Lisci, M.; Monte, M.; Pacini, E. Lichens and Higher Plants on Stone: A Review. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2003, 51, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Láníková, D.; Lososová, Z. Rocks and Walls: Natural versus Secondary Habitats. Folia Geobot. 2009, 44, 263–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steiner, W.A. The Influence of Air Pollution on Moss-Dwelling Animals: 1. Methodology and the Composition of Flora and Fauna. Rev. Suisse Zool. 1994, 101, 533–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jim, C.Y. Ecology and Conservation of Strangler Figs in Urban Wall Habitats. Urban Ecosyst. 2014, 17, 405–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dos Reis, V.A.; Lombardi, J.A.; De Figueiredo, R.A. Diversity of Vascular Plants Growing on Walls of a Brazilian City. Urban Ecosyst. 2006, 9, 39–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shimwell, D.W. Studies in the Floristic Diversity of Durham Walls, 1958–2008. Watsonia 2009, 27, 323–338. [Google Scholar]
- Jim, C.Y.; Chen, W.Y. Habitat Effect on Vegetation Ecology and Occurrence on Urban Masonry Walls. Urban For. Urban Green. 2010, 9, 169–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Payne, R. The Flora of Walls and Buildings in the Isle of Ely. In Nature in Cambridgeshire; Arnold, H.R., Ed.; Cambridge Natural History Society: Cambridge, UK, 2005; pp. 43–58. ISSN 0466-6046. [Google Scholar]
- Qiu, Y.; Chen, B.J.W.; Song, Y.; Huang, Z.Y.X.; Wan, L.; Huang, C.; Liu, M.; Xu, C. Composition, Distribution and Habitat Effects of Vascular Plants on the Vertical Surfaces of an Ancient City Wall. Urban Ecosyst. 2016, 19, 939–948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nedelcheva, A.; Vasileva, A. Vascular Plants from the Old Walls in Kystendil (Southwestern Bulgaria). Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip. 2009, 23, 154–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cervelli, E.W.; Lundholm, J.T.; Du, X. Spontaneous Urban Vegetation and Habitat Heterogeneity in Xi’an, China. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2013, 120, 25–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jim, C.Y. Assessing Growth Performance and Deficiency of Climber Species on Tropical Greenwalls. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 137, 107–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mårtensson, L.-M.; Wuolo, A.; Fransson, A.-M.; Emilsson, T. Plant Performance in Living Wall Systems in the Scandinavian Climate. Ecol. Eng. 2014, 71, 610–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chiquet, C.; Dover, J.W.; Mitchell, P. Birds and the Urban Environment: The Value of Green Walls. Urban Ecosyst. 2013, 16, 453–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wheater, C.P. Walls and Paved Surfaces: Urban Complexes with Limited Water and Nutrients. In The Routledge Handbook of Urban Ecology; Douglas, I., Goode, D., Houck, M.C., Wang, R., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2015; ISBN 9780415498135. [Google Scholar]
- Chiquet, C. The Animal Biodiversity of Green Walls in the Urban Environment. Ph.D. Thesis, Staffordshire University, Staffordshire, UK, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Garbuzov, M.; Ratnieks, F.L.W. Ivy: An Underappreciated Key Resource to Flower-Visiting Insects in Autumn. Insect Conserv. Divers. 2014, 7, 91–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Madre, F.; Clergeau, P.; Machon, N.; Vergnes, A. Building Biodiversity: Vegetated Façades as Habitats for Spider and Beetle Assemblages. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2015, 3, 222–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Köhler, M.; Ksiazek-Mikenas, K. Chapter 3.14—Green Roofs as Habitats for Biodiversity. In Nature Based Strategies for Urban and Building Sustainability; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 239–249. ISBN 978-0-12-812150-4. [Google Scholar]
- Dover, J.W. Green Roofs. In Green Infrastructure. Incorporating Plants and Enhancing Biodiversity in Buildings and Urban Environments; Dover, J.W., Ed.; Routledge: London, UK, 2015; pp. 163–217. ISBN 9780415521246. [Google Scholar]
- Madre, F.; Vergnes, A.; Machon, N.; Clergeau, P. Green Roofs as Habitats for Wild Plant Species in Urban Landscapes: First Insights from a Large-Scale Sampling. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2014, 122, 100–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Madre, F.; Vergnes, A.; Machon, N.; Clergeau, P. A Comparison of 3 Types of Green Roof as Habitats for Arthropods. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 57, 109–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kyrö, K.; Brenneisen, S.; Kotze, D.J.; Szallies, A.; Gerner, M.; Lehvävirta, S. Local Habitat Characteristics Have a Stronger Effect than the Surrounding Urban Landscape on Beetle Communities on Green Roofs. Urban For. Urban Green. 2018, 29, 122–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ksiazek-mikenas, K.; Herrmann, J.; Menke, S.B.; Köhler, M. If You Build It, Will They Come? Plant and Arthropod Diversity on Urban Green Roofs Over Time. Urban Nat. 2018, 1, 52–72. [Google Scholar]
- Joimel, S.; Grard, B.; Auclerc, A.; Hedde, M.; Le Doaré, N.; Salmon, S.; Chenu, C. Are Collembola “flying” onto Green Roofs? Ecol. Eng. 2018, 111, 117–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rumble, H.; Gange, A.C. Soil Microarthropod Community Dynamics in Extensive Green Roofs. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 57, 197–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- John, J.; Lundholm, J.; Kernaghan, G. Colonization of Green Roof Plants by Mycorrhizal and Root Endophytic Fungi. Ecol. Eng. 2014, 71, 651–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molineux, C.J.; Gange, A.C.; Connop, S.P.; Newport, D.J. Are Microbial Communities in Green Roof Substrates Comparable to Those in Post-Industrial Sites? A Preliminary Study. Urban Ecosyst. 2015, 18, 1245–1260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pétremand, G.; Chittaro, Y.; Braaker, S.; Brenneisen, S.; Gerner, M.; Obrist, M.K.; Rochefort, S.; Szallies, A.; Moretti, M. Ground Beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) Communities on Green Roofs in Switzerland: Synthesis and Perspectives. Urban Ecosyst. 2017, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernandez-Canero, R.; Gonzalez-Redondo, P. Green Roof as Habitat for Birds: A Review. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 2010, 9, 2041–2052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parkins, K.L.; Clark, J.A. Green Roofs Provide Habitat for Urban Bats. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2015, 4, 349–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matthies, S.A.; Rüter, S.; Schaarschmidt, F.; Prasse, R. Determinants of Species Richness within and across Taxonomic Groups in Urban Green Spaces. Urban Ecosyst. 2017, 20, 897–909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wong, G.K.L.; Jim, C.Y. Urban-Microclimate Effect on Vector Mosquito Abundance of Tropical Green Roofs. Build. Environ. 2017, 112, 63–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gabrych, M.; Kotze, D.J.; Lehvävirta, S. Substrate Depth and Roof Age Strongly Affect Plant Abundances on Sedum-Moss and Meadow Green Roofs in Helsinki, Finland. Ecol. Eng. 2016, 86, 95–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MacIvor, J.S.; Lundholm, J. Insect Species Composition and Diversity on Intensive Green Roofs and Adjacent Level-Ground Habitats. Urban Ecosyst. 2011, 14, 225–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muratet, A.; Machon, N.; Jiguet, F.; Moret, J.; Porcher, E. The Role of Urban Structures in the Distribution of Wasteland Flora in the Greater Paris Area, France. Ecosystems 2007, 10, 661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braaker, S.; Ghazoul, J.; Obrist, M.K.; Moretti, M. Habitat Connectivity Shapes Urban Arthropod Communities: The Key Role of Green Roofs. Ecology 2014, 95, 1010–1021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gómez, F.; Gil, L.; Jabaloyes, J. Experimental Investigation on the Thermal Comfort in the City: Relationship with the Green Areas, Interaction with the Urban Microclimate. Build. Environ. 2004, 39, 1077–1086. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manso, M.; Castro-Gomes, J. Green Wall Systems: A Review of Their Characteristics. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 41, 863–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lundholm, J.T.; Richardson, P.J. Habitat Analogues for Reconciliation Ecology in Urban and Industrial Environments. J. Appl. Ecol. 2010, 47, 966–975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kabisch, N.; Haase, D. Green Spaces of European Cities Revisited for 1990–2006. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2013, 110, 113–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atelier Parisien d’Urbanisme (APUR). Recensement Des Murs Végétaux Parisiens : Cartographie et Typologies État Avancement 2016; APUR: Paris, France, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Atelier Parisien d’Urbanisme (APUR). Étude Sur Le Potentiel de Végétalisation Des Toitures Terrasses À Paris; APUR: Paris, France, 2013; 39p. [Google Scholar]
- Tschander, B. Flachdachbegruenung in Der Stadt Zurich; Gruen Stadt Zurich, Naturfoerderung, Fachstelle Naturschutz: Zurich, Switzerland, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Silva, C.M.; Flores-Colen, I.; Antunes, M. Step-by-Step Approach to Ranking Green Roof Retrofit Potential in Urban Areas: A Case Study of Lisbon, Portugal. Urban For. Urban Green. 2017, 25, 120–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Croeser, T. Biological Potential in Cities: An Estimate from Melbourne. Urban For. Urban Green. 2016, 16, 84–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wong, N.H.; Tan, A.Y.K.; Tan, P.Y.; Sia, A.; Wong, N.C. Perception Studies of Vertical Greenery Systems in Singapore. J. Urban Plan. Dev. 2010, 136, 330–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Magliocco, A.; Perini, K. The Perception of Green Integrated into Architecture: Installation of a Green Facade in Genoa, Italy. AIMS Environ. Sci. 2015, 2, 899–909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brudermann, T.; Sangkakool, T. Green Roofs in Temperate Climate Cities in Europe—An Analysis of Key Decision Factors. Urban For. Urban Green. 2017, 21, 224–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, N.S.G.; Rayner, J.P.; Raynor, K.J. Green Roofs for a Wide Brown Land: Opportunities and Barriers for Rooftop Greening in Australia. Urban For. Urban Green. 2010, 9, 245–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Irga, P.J.; Braun, J.T.; Douglas, A.N.J.; Pettit, T.; Fujiwara, S.; Burchett, M.D.; Torpy, F.R. The Distribution of Green Walls and Green Roofs throughout Australia: Do Policy Instruments Influence the Frequency of Projects? Urban For. Urban Green. 2017, 24, 164–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Claus, K.; Rousseau, S. Public versus Private Incentives to Invest in Green Roofs: A Cost Benefit Analysis for Flanders. Urban For. Urban Green. 2012, 11, 417–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Riley, B. The State of the Art of Living Walls: Lessons Learned. Build. Environ. 2017, 114, 219–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lundholm, J.T. Urban Cliffs. In The Routledge Handbook of Urban Ecology; Douglas, I., Goode, D., Houck, M.C., Wang, R., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2015; ISBN 9781136883415. [Google Scholar]
- Braaker, S.; Obrist, M.K.; Ghazoul, J.; Moretti, M. Habitat Connectivity and Local Conditions Shape Taxonomic and Functional Diversity of Arthropods on Green Roofs. J. Anim. Ecol. 2017, 86, 521–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bonthoux, S.; Brun, M.; Di Pietro, F.; Greulich, S.; Bouché-Pillon, S. How Can Wastelands Promote Biodiversity in Cities? A Review. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2014, 132, 79–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Politi Bertoncini, A.; Machon, N.; Pavoine, S.; Muratet, A. Local Gardening Practices Shape Urban Lawn Floristic Communities. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2012, 105, 53–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, J.; Chapman, A.; Eggleton, P. Baseline Biodiversity Surveys of the Soil Macrofauna of London’s Green Spaces. Urban Ecosyst. 2006, 9, 337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paker, Y.; Yom-Tov, Y.; Alon-Mozes, T.; Barnea, A. The Effect of Plant Richness and Urban Garden Structure on Bird Species Richness, Diversity and Community Structure. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2014, 122, 186–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sarah, P.; Zhevelev, H.M.; Oz, A. Urban Park Soil and Vegetation: Effects of Natural and Anthropogenic Factors. Pedosphere 2015, 25, 392–404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lundholm, J. Vegetation of Urban Hard Surfaces. In Urban Ecology: Patterns, Processes, and Applications; Niemelä, J., Breuste, J.H., Elmqvist, T., Guntenspergen, G., James, P., McIntyre, N.E., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2011; ISBN 9780199563562. [Google Scholar]
- Melander, B.; Holst, N.; Grundy, A.C.; Kempenaar, C.; Riemens, M.M.; Verschwele, A.; Hansson, D. Weed Occurrence on Pavements in Five North European Towns. Weed Res. 2009, 49, 516–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fagot, M.; De Cauwer, B.; Beeldens, A.; Boonen, E.; Bulcke, R.; Reheul, D. Weed Flora in Paved Areas in Relation to Environment, Pavement Characteristics and Weed Control. Weed Res. 2011, 51, 650–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lundholm, J.T.; Marlin, A. Habitat Origins and Microhabitat Preferences of Urban Plant Species. Urban Ecosyst. 2006, 9, 139–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hermy, M. Landscaped Parks and Open Spaces. In The Routledge Handbook of Urban Ecology; Douglas, I., Goode, D., Houck, M.C., Wang, R., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2015; pp. 289–300. ISBN 9780415498135. [Google Scholar]
- Li, W.; Ouyang, Z.; Meng, X.; Wang, X. Plant Species Composition in Relation to Green Cover Configuration and Function of Urban Parks in Beijing, China. Ecol. Res. 2006, 21, 221–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shwartz, A.; Shirley, S.; Kark, S. How Do Habitat Variability and Management Regime Shape the Spatial Heterogeneity of Birds within a Large Mediterranean Urban Park? Landsc. Urban Plan. 2008, 84, 219–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, L.S.; Broyles, M.E.J.; Larzleer, H.K.; Fellowes, M.D.E. Adding Ecological Value to the Urban Lawnscape. Insect Abundance and Diversity in Grass-Free Lawns. Biodivers. Conserv. 2015, 24, 47–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Threlfall, C.G.; Mata, L.; Mackie, J.A.; Hahs, A.K.; Stork, N.E.; Williams, N.S.G.; Livesley, S.J. Increasing Biodiversity in Urban Green Spaces through Simple Vegetation Interventions. J. Appl. Ecol. 2017, 54, 1874–1883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, N.S.G.; Lundholm, J.; Scott Macivor, J. Do Green Roofs Help Urban Biodiversity Conservation? J. Appl. Ecol. 2014, 51, 1643–1649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MacIvor, J.S. Building Height Matters: Nesting Activity of Bees and Wasps on Vegetated Roofs. Isr. J. Ecol. Evol. 2016, 62, 88–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tonietto, R.; Fant, J.; Ascher, J.; Ellis, K.; Larkin, D. A Comparison of Bee Communities of Chicago Green Roofs, Parks and Prairies. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2011, 103, 102–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vergnes, A.; Saux, E.L.; Clergeau, P. Preliminary Data on Low Aerial Plankton in a Large City Center, Paris. Urban For. Urban Green. 2017, 22, 36–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Colding, J. “Ecological Land-Use Complementation” for Building Resilience in Urban Ecosystems. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2007, 81, 46–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Groups | Wall Systems | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Flora | ||||
Vascular species | Stone walls, masonry walls | [27,28,29,30,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39] | ||
Vertical climbing systems | [18,40] | |||
Living walls | [41] | |||
Mosses | Stone walls, masonry walls | [28] | ||
Lichen | Stone walls, masonry walls | [29] | ||
Fauna | ||||
Vertebrates | Mammals | Vertical climbing systems | [18,25] | |
Birds | Vertical climbing systems | [42] | ||
Stone walls, masonry walls | [43] | |||
Reptiles | Stone walls, masonry walls | [43] | ||
Invertebrates | Arthropods | Stone walls, masonry walls | [31] | |
Vertical climbing systems | [15,18,44,45,46] | |||
Living walls | [44,46] | |||
Gastropods | Vertical climbing systems | [44] | ||
Nematodes | Stone walls, masonry walls | [31] | ||
Tardigrades | Stone walls, masonry walls | [31] | ||
Rotifers | Stone walls, masonry walls | [31] |
Vegetated Systems | Type | Value/Mean Area (m2) | Min-Max Area (m2) | Reference (e.g.,) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Green roof | Extensive | 370 ± na (n = 7) | - | [53] |
42,178 (n = 1) | - | [24] | ||
4791 ± 518 (n = 19) | 370–13,000 | [51] | ||
940 ± 920 (n = 13) | 50–3040 | [52] | ||
Semi-intensive | 17,652 (n = 1) | - | [24] | |
6840 ± 3287 (n = 4) | 3000–11,960 | [51] | ||
Extensive and semi-intensive | 415 ± 518 (n = 115) | - | [49,50] | |
307 ± 261 (n = 3) | 73–671 | [61] | ||
na (n = 51) | 9–559 | [62] | ||
Intensive | ||||
Roof garden | 20,998 ± 27,954 (n = 18) | 900–100,000 | [24] | |
7050 (n = 1) | - | [51] | ||
1523.5 (n = 5) | 986–2824 | [63] | ||
Productive | 250 ± na (n = 8) | - | [53] | |
Green wall | Climbing systems | 308 ± 365.2 (n = 10) | 48–1050 | [46] |
21.4 ± 2.81 (n = 29) | 7.5–69.2 | [44] | ||
Living walls (all) | 65.9 ± 3.09 (n = 21) | 6–200 | [44] | |
Modular systems | 188 ± 264.6 (n = 9) | 28–900 | [46] | |
Continuous systems | 118.3 ± 87 (n = 6) | 40–300 | [46] |
Local Conditions | Dry, Hot and Sunny | Dry Hot, Shaded or Sunny | Damp, Fresh, Shaded or Sunny | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vegetated systems | Extensive roof | Semi-intensive roof | Green façade-climbing systems | Modular Living walls | Continuous living walls |
Substrate | 6–20 cm depth | 10–25 cm depth | mineral-organic soil, organic compost | light weight mix or organic compost | - |
Irrigation | never or periodically | periodically | never or periodically | moderate to height | height |
Plant strata | mosses, succulents, herbaceous, grasses | herbaceous, grasses, shrubs | herbaceous and woody lianas | mosses, herbaceous, grasses, shrubs | mosses, herbaceous, grasses, shrubs |
Analogue habitat | pioneer habitat, brownfield | grassland | cliff | waterfall | waterfall |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Mayrand, F.; Clergeau, P. Green Roofs and Green Walls for Biodiversity Conservation: A Contribution to Urban Connectivity? Sustainability 2018, 10, 985. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10040985
Mayrand F, Clergeau P. Green Roofs and Green Walls for Biodiversity Conservation: A Contribution to Urban Connectivity? Sustainability. 2018; 10(4):985. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10040985
Chicago/Turabian StyleMayrand, Flavie, and Philippe Clergeau. 2018. "Green Roofs and Green Walls for Biodiversity Conservation: A Contribution to Urban Connectivity?" Sustainability 10, no. 4: 985. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10040985