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Pharmaceutics
Volume 18
Issue 1
10.3390/pharmaceutics18010016
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Tailorable Antibacterial Activity and Biofilm Eradication Properties of Biocompatible α-Hydroxy Acid-Based Deep Eutectic Solvents

by
Gleb Dubinenko
1,
Elena Senkina
1,
Ksenia Golovina
1,
Alexandra Myshova
1,
Olga Igumnova
1,
Evgenii Plotnikov
2,3,4,
Arsalan Badaraev
1,
Sven Rutkowski
1,*,
Victor Filimonov
5 and
Sergei Tverdokhlebov
1,*
1
Laboratory of Plasma Hybrid Systems, Weinberg Research Center, Tomsk Polytechnic University, 634000 Tomsk, Russia
2
Research School of Chemistry & Applied Biomedical Sciences, Tomsk Polytechnic University, 634000 Tomsk, Russia
3
Mental Health Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Aleutskaya Street 4, 634014 Tomsk, Russia
4
Department of Chemistry, Siberian State Medical University, Moskovsky Trakt 2, 634050 Tomsk, Russia
5
Kizhner Research Center, Tomsk Polytechnic University, 634000 Tomsk, Russia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pharmaceutics 2026, 18(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics18010016
Submission received: 22 October 2025 / Revised: 19 December 2025 / Accepted: 20 December 2025 / Published: 22 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Drug Delivery)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have recently gained attention for their antimicrobial properties, particularly because they target both planktonic bacteria and biofilms. Among these, DESs based on α-hydroxy acids (αHAs) are of interest due to their inherent antibacterial properties and favorable biocompatibility. However, effects of the αHA molecular structure and hydrogen bonding ability within a DES formulation on biological activity has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Methods: This study systematically investigates DESs formed by combining glycolic acid, lactic acid or tartaric acid with either choline chloride or tetraethylammonium chloride. Results: All DESs demonstrate broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and effectively inhibit biofilm formation while exhibiting low cytotoxicity toward 3T3-L1 fibroblasts. Conclusions: DES formation enhances antibacterial efficacy while attenuating cytotoxicity compared to the individual components, thereby decoupling bactericidal activity from toxicity. Physicochemical characterization confirms the formation of a eutectic phase and reveals that biological activity is primarily governed by acidity rather than by the specific αHA structure or eutectic strength. These results provide new insights into structure-function relationships in DESs and establish a design strategy for biocompatible, non-cytotoxic antimicrobial agents.
Keywords: deep eutectic solvents; α-hydroxy acids; quaternary ammonium compounds; choline chloride; tetraethylammonium chloride; antibacterial; antibiofilm deep eutectic solvents; α-hydroxy acids; quaternary ammonium compounds; choline chloride; tetraethylammonium chloride; antibacterial; antibiofilm

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MDPI and ACS Style

Dubinenko, G.; Senkina, E.; Golovina, K.; Myshova, A.; Igumnova, O.; Plotnikov, E.; Badaraev, A.; Rutkowski, S.; Filimonov, V.; Tverdokhlebov, S. Tailorable Antibacterial Activity and Biofilm Eradication Properties of Biocompatible α-Hydroxy Acid-Based Deep Eutectic Solvents. Pharmaceutics 2026, 18, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics18010016

AMA Style

Dubinenko G, Senkina E, Golovina K, Myshova A, Igumnova O, Plotnikov E, Badaraev A, Rutkowski S, Filimonov V, Tverdokhlebov S. Tailorable Antibacterial Activity and Biofilm Eradication Properties of Biocompatible α-Hydroxy Acid-Based Deep Eutectic Solvents. Pharmaceutics. 2026; 18(1):16. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics18010016

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dubinenko, Gleb, Elena Senkina, Ksenia Golovina, Alexandra Myshova, Olga Igumnova, Evgenii Plotnikov, Arsalan Badaraev, Sven Rutkowski, Victor Filimonov, and Sergei Tverdokhlebov. 2026. "Tailorable Antibacterial Activity and Biofilm Eradication Properties of Biocompatible α-Hydroxy Acid-Based Deep Eutectic Solvents" Pharmaceutics 18, no. 1: 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics18010016

APA Style

Dubinenko, G., Senkina, E., Golovina, K., Myshova, A., Igumnova, O., Plotnikov, E., Badaraev, A., Rutkowski, S., Filimonov, V., & Tverdokhlebov, S. (2026). Tailorable Antibacterial Activity and Biofilm Eradication Properties of Biocompatible α-Hydroxy Acid-Based Deep Eutectic Solvents. Pharmaceutics, 18(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics18010016

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