Pattern and Drivers of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Herbivory on Tree Saplings across a Plateau Landscape
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Field Methods
2.3. Sapling Density Patterns
2.4. A Model of Sapling Density Based on Landscape Predictors
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ΔAICc | Difference in Akaike’s information criteria with small sample size correction |
AIC | Akaike’s information criteria |
AICc | Akaike’s information criteria with small sample size correction |
CI | confidence interval |
DEM | digital elevation model |
MSE | Mean square error |
NAPP | National Aerial Photography Program |
RMSE | Root mean square error |
SE | Standard error |
UoS | University of the South |
Appendix
Edge | Agriculture | Clearcut | Road | Residential | Cleared Road | Lake | Latitude | Plateau Access Zone | Number Plateau Access Zones | Width Plateau Access Zones | 2014 Deer Cull | 3 Year Deer Cull | 5 Year Deer Cull | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Edge | NA | |||||||||||||
Agriculture | 0.12 (0.28) | NA | ||||||||||||
Clearcut | 0.23 (0.03) | −0.03 (0.75) | NA | |||||||||||
Road | 0.08 (0.45) | 0.98 (0) | −0.16 (0.14) | NA | ||||||||||
Residential | 0.07 (0.51) | 0.97 (0) | −0.18 (0.08) | 0.99 (0) | NA | |||||||||
Cleared Road | 0.56 (<0.001) | −0.19 (0.07) | 0.25 (0.02) | −0.22 (0.04) | −0.22 (0.04) | NA | ||||||||
Lake | 0.06 (0.59) | 0.16 (0.14) | −0.05 (0.66) | 0.13 (0.22) | 0.12 (0.25) | −0.23 (0.03) | NA | |||||||
Latitude | −0.08 (0.46) | 0.25 (0.02) | −0.56 (<0.001) | 0.41 (<0.001) | 0.45 (<0.001) | −0.21 (0.04) | 0.09 (0.40) | NA | ||||||
Plateau Access Zone | −0.12 (0.27) | −0.15 (0.16) | −0.25 (0.02) | −0.12 (0.24) | −0.09 (0.41) | 0.13 (0.24) | −0.44 (<0.001) | −0.05 (0.66) | NA | |||||
Number Plateau Access Zones | −0.11 (0.30) | −0.23 (0.03) | 0.24 (0.02) | −0.28 (0.01) | −0.32 (0.002) | 0.05 (0.62) | −0.17 (0.10) | −0.53 (<0.001) | 0.14 (0.20) | NA | ||||
Width Plateau Access Zones | 0.15 (0.17) | 0.34 (0.001) | −0.05 (0.66) | 0.37 (<0.001) | 0.38 (<0.001) | 0.05 (0.68) | −0.04 (0.72) | 0.35 (<0.001) | −0.13 (0.22) | −0.39 (<0.001) | NA | |||
2014 Deer Cull | −0.05 (0.65) | −0.60 (<0.001) | −0.15 (0.16) | −0.54 (<0.001) | −0.52 (<0.001)) | 0.31 (0.003) | −0.18 (0.08) | −0.02 (0.82) | 0.28 (0.01) | 0.01 (0.94) | −0.13 (0.23) | NA | ||
3 Year Deer Cull | −0.07 (0.53) | −0.58 (<0.001) | −0.17 (0.10) | −0.54 (<0.001) | −0.51 (<0.001) | 0.18 (0.09) | −0.13 (0.23) | −0.04 (0.70) | 0.35 (<0.001) | −0.03 (0.77) | −0.15 (0.15) | 0.93 (0) | NA | |
5 Year Deer Cull | −0.08 (0.48) | −0.56 (<0.001) | −0.11 (0.33) | −0.54 (<0.001) | −0.51 (<0.001) | 0.20 (0.06) | −0.16 (0.13) | −0.11 (0.30) | 0.35 (<0.001) | −0.02 (0.87) | −0.14 (0.19) | 0.84 (0) | 0.95 (0) | NA |
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Model Variable | Explanation |
---|---|
Edge Predictors | |
Residential Development | Distance to residential development (m) |
Road | Distance to road (m) |
Cleared Road | Distance to cleared road (m) |
Recent Clearcut | Distance to clearcut (m) present 2012–2015 |
Livestock Pasture/Agriculture | Distance to agriculture (m) |
Lake | Distance to lake (m) |
Nearest Edge | Distance to nearest edge (m), defined as the nearest of all edge predictors |
Plateau Accessibility Predictors | |
Latitude | Latitude (decimal degrees) |
Plateau Access Zone | Distance to closest plateau access zone (m) |
Number of Nearby Plateau Access Zones | Number of plateau access zones within 500 m of closest bluff edge |
Average Nearby Plateau Access Zone Width | Average width of all plateau access zones within 500 m of closest bluff edge |
Deer Cull Predictors | |
5 Year Deer Cull | 5 year average number of deer killed (per km2) in associated cull area |
3 Year Deer Cull | 3 year average number of deer killed (per km2) in associated cull area |
2014 Deer Cull | Average number of deer killed (per km2) in associated cull area in 2014 |
Model | Parameter | AICc | ΔAICc | MSE | RMSE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sapling Density | |||||
Latitude | 2 | 687.8 | 0 | 1.671 | 1.293 |
Residential | 2 | 716.7 | 28.9 | 2.305 | 1.519 |
5 Year Deer Cull | 2 | 730.2 | 42.4 | 1.854 | 1.361 |
Year | 2 | 750.3 | 62.5 | 2.474 | 1.572 |
Parameter | Estimate (SE) | Lower 95% CI | Upper 95% CI | Unit Change | Scaled Estimate | Importance Weight |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sapling Density | ||||||
Latitude | 142 (16.82) | 113.31 | 171.33 | 0.01 degrees | 1.42 | 0.99 |
Residential | 9.22 × 10−4 (1.27 × 10−4) | 6.38 × 10−4 | 1.22 × 10−3 | 1000 m | 1.226 | <0.01 |
5 Year Deer Cull | −6.44 (1.10) | −8.58 | −4.12 | 0.1 deer/km2 | −0.64 | <0.01 |
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Evans, J.P.; Oldfield, C.A.; Cecala, K.K.; Hiers, J.K.; Van De Ven, C.; Armistead, M.M. Pattern and Drivers of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Herbivory on Tree Saplings across a Plateau Landscape. Forests 2016, 7, 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7050101
Evans JP, Oldfield CA, Cecala KK, Hiers JK, Van De Ven C, Armistead MM. Pattern and Drivers of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Herbivory on Tree Saplings across a Plateau Landscape. Forests. 2016; 7(5):101. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7050101
Chicago/Turabian StyleEvans, Jonathan P., Callie A. Oldfield, Kristen K. Cecala, John Kevin Hiers, Chris Van De Ven, and Meg M. Armistead. 2016. "Pattern and Drivers of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Herbivory on Tree Saplings across a Plateau Landscape" Forests 7, no. 5: 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7050101