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Review

A Minireview on Multiscale Structural Inheritance and Mechanical Performance Regulation of SiC Wood-Derived Ceramics via Reactive Sintering and Hot-Pressing

by
Shuying Ji
1,2,
Yixuan Sun
1,3 and
Haiyang Zhang
1,2,*
1
Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forestry Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
2
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
3
International Education College, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2025, 16(9), 1383; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091383
Submission received: 28 July 2025 / Revised: 21 August 2025 / Accepted: 25 August 2025 / Published: 28 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Uses, Structure and Properties of Wood and Wood Products)
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Abstract

Wood-derived ceramics represent a novel class of bio-based composite materials that integrate the hierarchical porous architecture of natural wood with high-performance ceramic phases such as silicon carbide (SiC). This review systematically summarizes recent advances in the fabrication of SiC woodceramics via two predominant sintering routes—reactive infiltration sintering and hot-press sintering—and elucidates their effects on the resulting microstructure and mechanical properties. This review leverages the intrinsic anisotropic vascular network and multiscale porosity and mechanical strength, achieving ultralightweight yet mechanically robust ceramics with tunable anisotropy and dynamic energy dissipation capabilities. Critical process–structure–property relationships are highlighted, including the role of ceramic reinforcement phases, interfacial engineering, and multiscale toughening mechanisms. The review further explores emerging applications spanning extreme protection (e.g., ballistic armor and aerospace thermal shields), multifunctional devices (such as electromagnetic shielding and tribological components), and architectural innovations including seismic-resistant composites and energy-efficient building materials. Finally, key challenges such as sintering-induced deformation, interfacial bonding limitations, and scalability are discussed alongside future prospects involving low-temperature sintering, nanoscale interface reinforcement, and additive manufacturing. This mini overview provides essential insights into the design and optimization of wood-derived ceramics, advancing their transition from sustainable biomimetic materials to next-generation high-performance structural components. This review synthesizes data from over 50 recent studies (2011–2025) indexed in Scopus and Web of Science, highlighting three key advancements: (1) bio-templated anisotropy breaking the porosity–strength trade-off, (2) reactive vs. hot-press sintering mechanisms, and (3) multifunctional applications in extreme environments.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Woodceramics represent a novel class of porous ceramics synthesized from renewable biomass precursors such as wood, straw, and agricultural residues, typically through resin impregnation followed by pyrolytic carbonization [1,2]. Their environmental friendliness stems from several intrinsic advantages: the use of renewable raw materials, significantly lower carbon emissions compared to conventional ceramics, and the potential for high-value utilization of agricultural and forestry waste [2,3]. However, traditional wood-polymer composites (e.g., resin-based flooring laminates) suffer from moisture delamination and thermal degradation below 200 °C, limiting their durability [3]. In contrast, SiC-reinforced woodceramics eliminate volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from synthetic resins while exhibiting 300% higher thermal stability and 150% greater specific strength [4]. Moreover, the end-of-life degradation or recyclability of these materials contributes further to their sustainability.
Wood-derived ceramics leverage renewable biomass (e.g., pine, bamboo) to create porous carbon templates via pyrolysis [2,3,4]. Silicon carbide (SiC) is prioritized as a reinforcement phase due to its covalent bonding, high thermal stability (>1600 °C), low density (3.21 g/cm3), and exceptional hardness (25 GPa) [3,4]. With the incorporation of SiC as a reinforcing phase, woodceramics evolve into hybrid woodceramic composites that combine the hierarchical porous structure of natural wood with the mechanical robustness and thermal resilience of SiC. This synergy results in materials that are lightweight, mechanically strong, and highly resistant to high-temperature environments. Incorporating SiC transforms these materials into lightweight, thermally robust hybrids that preserve the hierarchical porosity within wood. Key challenges persist in maintaining anisotropy during organic-to-inorganic conversion, involving complex phase evolution and interfacial dynamics across multiple length scales.
This review aims to (1) systematically compare reactive infiltration sintering (RIS) and hot-press sintering (HPS) for replicating multiscale wood architectures in SiC ceramics; (2) decipher process–structure–property relationships governing mechanical anisotropy; (3) evaluate emerging applications in extreme environments and sustainable architecture, with a focus on structural inheritance mechanisms and performance benchmarks. The flowchart of the mini review is shown in Scheme 1.

2. The Preparation Process and Key Technologies of SiC Woodceramics

SiC is characterized by strong covalent bonding, which remains stable even at elevated temperatures [4,5,6]. This robust atomic structure endows SiC ceramics with a suite of exceptional mechanical and thermal properties, making them one of the most widely used structural ceramics. SiC exhibits a relatively low density, high hardness, excellent thermal conductivity, and superior resistance to thermal shock-traits that are particularly advantageous for demanding engineering environments. When integrated into wood-derived ceramic frameworks, SiC significantly enhances the structural integrity and high-temperature performance of the resulting composites. To date, two primary processing techniques have been developed to fabricate SiC-based woodceramics: reactive sintering and hot-press sintering. These methods differ fundamentally in their reaction mechanisms, temperature-pressure regimes, and microstructural outcomes, thereby offering distinct routes for tailoring the mechanical behavior of the final materials.

2.1. Reaction-Sintering Process

Reactive infiltration sintering (RIS) is a widely employed method for converting porous carbon templates into dense SiC-based woodceramics. The process involves the capillary-driven infiltration of molten silicon or silicon alloys into a carbonaceous porous preform, followed by an in situ reaction between liquid silicon and carbon to form SiC. This reaction is accompanied by a volumetric expansion that contributes to pore filling and microstructural densification. Fundamentally, RIS transforms a biogenic carbon scaffold into a SiC-dominated ceramic matrix through silicon infiltration and reactive conversion. The RIS process can be broadly divided into two critical steps: (1) preparation of the carbon template and (2) molten silicon infiltration.
Carbon Template Fabrication was mainly the first procedure. The carbon preform is typically derived from lignocellulosic biomass—such as wood flour or agricultural residues—via hot-pressing followed by slow pyrolytic carbonization under inert atmosphere (heating rates ≤ 5 °C/min). This results in porous carbon skeletons with characteristic pore sizes ranging from 50 to 200 μm. For instance, Wang et al. (2024) and Zhang et al. (2011) employed pine wood powder treated with phenolic resin and subjected it to high-temperature carbonization in nitrogen, yielding robust carbon frameworks as shown in Figure 1 [7,8]. Similarly, Jin et al. (2012) and Kang et al. (2018) used enzymatic hydrolysis lignin (EHL)-modified phenolic resin and wood flour composites, processed through resin impregnation, drying, and carbonization, to create carbon templates with tailored structures [9,10]. In another study, bamboo veneers and fibrous membranes were impregnated with phenolic resin and sintered to yield a multilayered carbon architecture [11,12]. Molten silicon infiltration was the second procedure. This subsequent step is typically performed at 1450–1750 °C under vacuum. A silicon source (commonly a mixture of 60–80 wt% silicon powder and pre-added SiC particles) is melted and infiltrates the porous carbon template via capillary action. The infiltrated silicon reacts with the carbon to generate β-SiC, while residual molten silicon fills remaining pores, thus forming a dense SiC ceramic [13]. For example, Wang et al. (2024) employed a pressure-less infiltration strategy, stacking silicon-based precursors with carbon templates and sintering at high temperatures to obtain highly densified SiC structures [14]. In a comparative study, Cao et al. (2021) examined the effect of infiltration temperatures (1650 °C vs. 1900 °C) on microstructure and performance, concluding that lower processing temperatures yielded superior mechanical properties due to optimized reaction kinetics and phase distribution [15,16]. This infiltration-reaction sequence plays a decisive role in determining the final composition, microstructure, and thus the performance of SiC woodceramics. Precise control over temperature, silicon content, and template morphology is essential for achieving the desired balance of porosity, strength, and thermal stability. Their detailed comparison is shown in Table 1.

2.2. Hot-Press Sintering Method

Hot-press sintering (HPS) offers a distinct approach to fabricating dense SiC-based ceramics by simultaneously applying elevated temperatures (typically 1900–2200 °C) and high pressures (20–40 MPa). This technique utilizes submicron SiC powders in conjunction with sintering aids—commonly boron and carbon—to promote liquid-phase formation and facilitate particle rearrangement. As a result, the final ceramics can achieve >99.5% relative density, with flexural strengths exceeding 650 MPa. In a representative study, Wang et al. (2023) employed HPS for the fabrication of C/SiC composites by impregnating carbon fibers, followed by winding, drying, layer stacking, and final hot-press sintering [18]. While this method yielded highly dense composites, it was noted that the severe thermo-mechanical conditions could degrade fiber morphology, thereby limiting the fabrication of complex geometries. To address such challenges, Li et al. (2025) introduced a surface-engineered graphite interlayer on SiC fibers prior to sintering [19]. The resulting fiber-bonded ceramics (FBCs) exhibited an exceptionally low porosity of just 0.52%, along with enhanced mechanical performance and oxidation resistance. Similarly, Ma et al. (2021) [20] demonstrated that incorporating aluminum-boron-carbon (Al-B-C) additives during HPS significantly improved densification and mechanical properties through transient liquid-phase formation. When the additive content reached 10 wt%, the ceramics showed optimal flexural strength and fracture toughness, highlighting the importance of composition–processing synergy in sintering design [20]. Comparatively, RIS and HPS offer complementary advantages. RIS enables SiC formation through silicon infiltration of carbon templates, with relatively lower cost and easier processing but limited densification at elevated temperatures. In contrast, HPS allows for the fabrication of near-zero-porosity ceramics with superior mechanical and thermal performance, albeit at the expense of processing complexity and higher energy input. Consequently, each method is suited to distinct application scenarios depending on the structural demands and economic considerations.
So, RIS leverages capillary-driven Si infiltration, forming β-SiC via Si (l) + C (s) → SiC(s) with 108% volume expansion [13]. This creates interlocked SiC/Si networks but leaves 5–12 vol% unreacted Si, limiting high-T stability. Conversely, HPS induces liquid-phase sintering with Al-B-C additives, forming transient Al4C3, B4C that facilitate atomic diffusion [15], achieving near-full density but erasing bio-template porosity. The choice hinges on applications: RIS for porous functional materials (e.g., filters) and HPS for structural components (e.g., armor). The main comparisons are shown in Table 2.

3. The Anisotropy of Mechanical Properties of Wood-Based Ceramics and Optimization Strategies

Leveraging the intrinsic hierarchical and anisotropic porosity of natural wood, wood-derived SiC ceramics have demonstrated a unique ability to reconcile the classical trade-off between low density and high mechanical robustness. This transformation—from lightweight porous scaffolds to strong, damage-tolerant ceramics—is made possible by precise templating of the wood’s multiscale architecture during pyrolysis and siliconization. Recent advances have highlighted a broad mechanical design continuum enabled by this bio-template strategy: from extreme anisotropy in compressive strength after resin impregnation as shown in Figure 2 [24], to whisker-mediated toughening platforms [25], and to cross-scale interfacial engineering [26]. These findings collectively demonstrate that the mechanical behavior of woodceramics transcends the traditional porosity–strength inverse correlation seen in conventional porous ceramics. Instead, strength and toughness can be systematically tuned through the synergy of genetic microstructure inheritance, multiscale reinforcement architectures, and process–data optimization frameworks as shown in Figure 3 [27,28,29].
One of the most striking features of woodceramics is their ability to maintain mechanical reliability under ultralightweight conditions (ρ < 1 g cm−3) [21] and extremely high porosities (50%–80%) [24]. This performance is rooted in the precise replication and amplification of natural wood’s hierarchical topology via the “bio-template to ceramic” transformation route [27]. The strong axial (longitudinal) versus weak radial (transverse) mechanical anisotropy observed in woodceramics is not merely a directional difference, but rather a direct consequence of how vessels, microfibrils, and multilayered cell walls are converted into SiC skeletons under high temperatures and pressure [24]. For instance, Zhou et al. (2024) reported that biomorphic SiC ceramics derived from poplar wood exhibited a longitudinal flexural strength of 41.63 MPa at 78.6% porosity, whereas the radial strength was only 16.64 MPa—a 2.5-fold difference—due to the continuous axial SiC bridges formed by aligned vessel templates [30]. Similarly, Wang et al. (2024) demonstrated that directionally frozen mullite whisker ceramics exhibited compressive strength of 3.4 MPa in the aligned direction, but only 1.04 MPa in the transverse direction, underscoring the decisive role of directional bridging in anisotropic strengthening [31]. However, enhanced axial properties often come at the cost of degraded transverse toughness. To address this, researchers are adopting transverse-optimized strategies: one approach involves integrating 3D-printed or woven interlocking architectures to reconstruct a robust transverse load-bearing network; another strategy employs pore gradients or mesoporous domains to induce crack deflection, promoting global toughening through local stiffness modulation. For example, Wu et al. (2025) incorporated hexagonal 3D WC preforms into high-chromium cast iron, leading to a 57% increase in transverse hardness (up to 1450.4 HV), owing to the formation of a transverse “crack-trapping network” of W-Fe-C carbides [32]. Qiao et al. (2025) introduced 3–50 nm mesopores using urea-based pore formers in woodceramics, enabling a transverse flexural strength of 4.89 MPa even when the longitudinal porosity was reduced to 50.58%, a 22% improvement compared to controls [33]. The underlying mechanism lies in crack tip blunting and multistep deflection initiated by the mesostructures, effectively mitigating transverse brittleness.
Breaking the traditional axial-dominant paradigm requires engineering at the nanoscale interface level. Chen et al. (2024) [34] introduced nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (N-GQDs) derived from lignin into a β-Si3N4 matrix, forming a “β-Si3N4 grain@N-GQDs flexible shell” core–shell architecture. This enhanced the longitudinal fracture toughness by 35% (up to 9.09 MPa·m0.5) while simultaneously suppressing transverse microcrack initiation through interfacial thermal mismatch buffering as shown in Figure 4 [34]. Huang et al. (2020) demonstrated that hierarchical energy dissipation via a 3D SiC skeleton embedded in a metal matrix reduced wear rate from 3.8% to 0.32%, mimicking the shear-slip behavior of wood fibers under complex loads [35].
Recent advances have thus redefined the classic porosity–strength trade-off by exposing the potent role of structural inheritance in wood-derived ceramics. In the porosity range of 64%–65%, biomimetic β-Si3N4 whisker arrays [23] and hydroxyapatite analogs as shown in Figure 5 [36] achieved strength values three to four-fold higher than conventional porous ceramics, enabled by synergistic toughening across directional pores and fibrous scaffolds. However, this “inheritance advantage” also exposes limitations in universal interfacial reinforcement. For instance, Wu et al. (2019) showed that the reinforcing effect of ZrC nanoparticles in pine-derived SiC (20 μm open pores) achieved a 104% strength increase, whereas oak-derived templates (100 μm closed pores) yielded only a 20% gain [17]. This mirrored experiment highlighted the critical role of pore morphology and infiltration kinetics in determining reinforcement efficiency. Critically, most current studies lack a quantitative framework describing the coupling among template structure, infiltration behavior, and nanoscale phase dispersion, leading to inconsistencies across different wood species. Going forward, a rigorous multiscale model—linking template topology, processing parameters, and reinforcement phases—is needed to fully unlock the designability and cross-platform transferability of wood-derived ceramics. Such models may even extend to genetic-level understanding of vascular topologies in wood and their translation into high-performance ceramic networks.
As shown in Figure 5 [36], wood-derived hydroxyapatite (HA) ceramics achieve a Young’s modulus of 15–20 GPa and strength of 80–120 MPa at 65% porosity, exceeding conventional porous ceramics by 3–4 times [23,36]. This enhancement stems from biomimetic β-Si3N4 whisker arrays [23] that bridge directional pores [24], enabling synergistic toughening via crack deflection and fiber pull-out mechanisms [25,26].

4. Application

Wood-derived ceramics, as a unique class of composites integrating bio-templated architecture with ceramic functionality, have demonstrated remarkable mechanical performance across diverse application domains. By preserving the natural multiscale porosity of wood and incorporating tailored reinforcing phases, these materials offer a rare synergy of light weight, structural integrity, and thermal robustness. Such attributes have enabled woodceramics to make impactful contributions in three key areas: extreme protection, function–structure integrated devices, and architectural innovation.

4.1. Lightweight Impact-Resistant Structure in Extreme Protection Field

In the domain of extreme protection, wood-derived ceramics have emerged as promising candidates due to their exceptional specific strength and intrinsic crack deflection capabilities. Particularly in ballistic armor applications, the anisotropic architecture inherited from the aligned wood vascular bundles facilitates efficient energy dissipation via crack redirection mechanisms as shown in Figure 6 [37,38]. Combined with their low density (as low as 2.5 g cm−3) and high compressive strength (up to 390 MPa), these materials demonstrate excellent ballistic energy absorption, enabling weight reductions of over 30% compared to conventional ceramic armors such as alumina [22,39].
However, the performance of SiC-based woodceramics under multiple impact scenarios is often constrained by interlayer bonding weakness, which can limit their resistance to successive strikes [40]. Ballistic tests show that after three hits at 850 m/s, delamination propagates along weak SiC/Si interfaces (fracture energy ≈ 15 J/m2), reducing energy adsorption by 45%. Metal infiltration (e.g., Al-12Si alloy) raises interfacial toughness to 85 J/m2 but adds 1 g/cm3 density. Optimal design requires finite element simulation to balance weight and multi-hit tolerance, as demonstrated in Chen et al.’s armor model [34]. To address this, strategies such as metal infiltration have been explored to enhance interfacial strength and damage tolerance. In aerospace thermal protection systems, the high-temperature stability and low thermal expansion coefficient of wood-derived ceramics make them attractive for components such as rocket nozzle liners and reentry shields. Nevertheless, when porosity exceeds 40%, the risk of thermal shock-induced cracking increases substantially [41,42]. To mitigate this, graded sintering approaches have been proposed to optimize pore architecture and reduce internal thermal stress concentrations, thus improving structural reliability in ultra-high-temperature environments [43]. However, interlayer bonding weakness in laminated woodceramics limits multi-impact resistance (40% strength drop after three strikes [40]). Metal infiltration (e.g., Al-Si alloy [35]) improves interfacial strength by 57% via carbide formation (W-Fe-C [32]). For thermal protection, porosity > 40% increases thermal shock cracking risk (thermal stress exceeds 150 MPa at ∆T = 1000 °C [41,42]). Graded sintering with pore gradients (5%–40% radial porosity variation 43) reduces stress concentration by 35% [43].

4.2. The Collaborative Mechanism of Functional–Structural Devices

The inherent porous architecture of wood, when coupled with a ceramic conversion strategy, enables wood-derived ceramics to serve as multifunctional components with both structural and functional capabilities. This makes them particularly well-suited for function–structure integrated devices, where load-bearing performance and active physical responses are simultaneously required. In electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, the hierarchically porous SiC skeleton derived from the wood template facilitates effective scattering and absorption of electromagnetic waves, while the ceramic phase contributes a flexural strength of up to 192 MPa, ensuring mechanical integrity under load [37]. As a result, shielding effectiveness values exceeding 50 dB have been reported [40]. However, careful optimization of porosity is critical, as excessive porosity can impair reflection-based shielding while improving absorption, necessitating a balanced design strategy to tune the dielectric impedance. Wood-derived SiC EMI shields achieve > 50 dB 8–12 GHz (military radar band) due to quarter-wavelength resonance in 200–500 μm vessel pores [37]. However, effectiveness drops to <30 dB at 2.4 GHz (WiFi band) where pore sizes are suboptimal. Gradient porosity designs [43] can broaden bandwidth but increase fabrication complexity by three times [29]. In industrial tribological components, such as bearing elements or seal rings, wood-derived ceramics offer lateral compressive strengths in the range of 20–35 MPa, sufficient to withstand moderate mechanical loads. Moreover, their low and stable friction coefficients (typically 0.13–0.15) impart a degree of self-lubrication, contributing to reduced energy consumption and enhanced operational efficiency in dynamic systems [39,44].

4.3. The New Biomimetic Paradigm of Architectural Innovation

In the field of architectural innovation, wood-derived ceramics offer novel solutions inspired by biomimetic mechanics, leveraging their inherent damping capacity and structural toughness [37]. When integrated with metals such as aluminum alloys, woodceramics form interconnected load-transfer networks that significantly enhance flexural strength, up to 210 MPa, and substantially improve damping properties. These combined effects enable effective mitigation of vibrations in high-rise buildings subjected to seismic and other extreme dynamic loads [22]. Beyond structural reinforcement, woodceramics serve as promising materials for bioinspired HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) components. Even under compressive stresses of approximately 20 MPa, their retained porous architecture facilitates efficient thermal energy transfer while maintaining mechanical stability [43,45]. This dual capability presents new pathways for energy-efficient, comfortable building environments through advanced thermal regulation. Graded porosity designs (e.g., 5%–40% radial variation [43]) enable tailored seismic-resistant composites (210 MPa flexural strength [22]). For tribological components, friction coefficients of 0.13–0.14 [44] rival commercial SiC seals 50. Further, 3D-printed woodceramic composites (e.g., graphene-reinforced [37]) reduce building weight by 30% in prefabricated structures [46], while CNC-machined HPS-SiC cutting tools exhibit 57% longer lifespan than alumina in wood milling [39]. Collectively, these application scenarios—from extreme protection and function–structure integration to architectural innovation—demonstrate the unique advantages and vast potential of wood-derived ceramics in mechanical performance design. They open new frontiers for replacing traditional materials and enhancing multifunctional performance in advanced engineering systems.

5. Conclusions and Future Challenges

In summary, wood-derived ceramics, an emerging class of bio-based composites, have achieved three core breakthroughs in mechanical performance research. First, by preserving the natural porous architecture of wood and subsequently introducing ceramic reinforcing phases, multiscale structures combining ultralightweight and high strength have been realized. Second, their unique anisotropic porosity endows these materials with exceptional dynamic energy dissipation capabilities, representing a significant advancement over conventional construction materials. Third, by carefully tuning carbonization temperatures, a balance between broad thermal stability and environmental degradability has been achieved [47,48]. These advances position woodceramics as promising substitutes in fields such as seismic-resistant construction and electromagnetic shielding. Notably, integration with cross-laminated timber (CLT) composites has demonstrated potential for reducing building weight by up to 30% while enhancing seismic performance [46,49]. Nonetheless, commercialization still faces challenges, including sintering-induced deformation leading to product yields below 65%, and weak metal/ceramic interfacial bonding [46,49,50,51]. Future research must focus on several critical aspects: developing low-temperature sintering processes to minimize deformation; employing nanoscale fiber-reinforced interfaces such as carbon nanotube (CNT) bridging techniques [47,51]; and establishing customized additive manufacturing platforms based on 3D printing. With the anticipated large-scale utilization of renewable feedstocks like bamboo and the maturation of topology optimization technologies by 2030 [15,52], wood-derived ceramics are poised to establish systematic markets in prefabricated buildings, 5G base stations, and beyond. This development trajectory not only aligns with global carbon neutrality strategies but also heralds a paradigm shift in building materials, from energy-intensive to bio-intelligent systems.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.J. and H.Z.; methodology, S.J. and Y.S.; validation, S.J., Y.S., and H.Z.; formal analysis, Y.S.; writing—original draft preparation, S.J.; project administration, H.Z.; funding acquisition, H.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was financially supported by the Student Practice Innovation and Training Program of Nanjing Forestry University (202410298099Z, 2025NFUSPIT0273).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Scheme 1. The flowchart of the mini review. * indicates the number of studies for which the reasons for exclusion were reported.
Scheme 1. The flowchart of the mini review. * indicates the number of studies for which the reasons for exclusion were reported.
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Figure 1. The process flow of woodceramic reaction-sintering preparation method [7].
Figure 1. The process flow of woodceramic reaction-sintering preparation method [7].
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Figure 2. Process flow of composite phase-change material with wood-derived SiC ceramic as the matrix [24]. (a) Starting material is natural wood, composed of an interwined 3-D network of lignin that binds together cellulose fibers (cellulose + hemicellulose). The hierarchial micro-channels inherent in the wood structure serve as the biotemplate. (b) A heat-assisted chemical treatment is applied. This step selectively removes hemicellulose and partially degrades lignin, leaving behind cellulose nanofibers that are more thermally stable and have a higher carbon yield. (c) The treated wood is carbonized under an inert atmosphere. Organic components are converted into carbonized wood—a porous carbon scaffold that accurately replicates the original micro- and macro-structural features of the native wood. (d) The carbon scaffold is brought into contact with molten silicon. Through a high-temperature reactive infiltration process, liquid Si penetrates the porous network and reacts with carbon to form SiC ceramics (silicon carbide). Any unreacted excess silicon remains within the pores. (e) The excess silicon is removed, yielding a final SiC/PCM composites. The product combines the high strength and thermal stability of SiC with the latent-heat storage capability of the remaining phase-change material (PMC), creating a multifunctional wood-derived ceramic suitable for advanced thermal-management applications.
Figure 2. Process flow of composite phase-change material with wood-derived SiC ceramic as the matrix [24]. (a) Starting material is natural wood, composed of an interwined 3-D network of lignin that binds together cellulose fibers (cellulose + hemicellulose). The hierarchial micro-channels inherent in the wood structure serve as the biotemplate. (b) A heat-assisted chemical treatment is applied. This step selectively removes hemicellulose and partially degrades lignin, leaving behind cellulose nanofibers that are more thermally stable and have a higher carbon yield. (c) The treated wood is carbonized under an inert atmosphere. Organic components are converted into carbonized wood—a porous carbon scaffold that accurately replicates the original micro- and macro-structural features of the native wood. (d) The carbon scaffold is brought into contact with molten silicon. Through a high-temperature reactive infiltration process, liquid Si penetrates the porous network and reacts with carbon to form SiC ceramics (silicon carbide). Any unreacted excess silicon remains within the pores. (e) The excess silicon is removed, yielding a final SiC/PCM composites. The product combines the high strength and thermal stability of SiC with the latent-heat storage capability of the remaining phase-change material (PMC), creating a multifunctional wood-derived ceramic suitable for advanced thermal-management applications.
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Figure 3. Illustration of the preparation process and data set source of the pressure sintering method [29].
Figure 3. Illustration of the preparation process and data set source of the pressure sintering method [29].
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the coupled process of pyrolysis and hot-press sintering of silicon nitride-based composite materials [34]. (1) Step 1—Powder preparation. Starting powder consists of three components: nano-lignin (carbon source), amorphous carbon and Si3N4 (the α-phase of silicon nitride). These powder are homogeneously mixed. (2) Step 2—Pyrolysis (800 °C, 30 min, N2). The powder mixture is heated to 800 °C under flowing nitrogen for 30 min. During this low-temperature pyrolysis the nano-lignin and amorphous carbon are converted into nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (N-GQDs), while the α-Si3N4 remains thermally stable; nitrogen doping is simultaneously introduced. (3) Step 3—Hot-pressing sintering (1400 °C, 60 min, N2). The pyrolyzed mixture is placed in graphite die and hot-pressed at 1400 °C for 60 min under nitrogen. The N-GQDs act as in-situ carbon additives that promote liquid-phase formation and accelerate the α → β transformation of Si3N4, yielding a primary β-Si3N4 matrix. (4) Step 4—High-temperature densification (1700 °C). The compact is further heated to 1700 °C to complete densification. The final microstructure is a dense silicon nitride-based composite in which β-Si3N4 grains are reinforced by uniformly dispersed N-GQDs, improving both mechanical strength and thermal conductivity.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the coupled process of pyrolysis and hot-press sintering of silicon nitride-based composite materials [34]. (1) Step 1—Powder preparation. Starting powder consists of three components: nano-lignin (carbon source), amorphous carbon and Si3N4 (the α-phase of silicon nitride). These powder are homogeneously mixed. (2) Step 2—Pyrolysis (800 °C, 30 min, N2). The powder mixture is heated to 800 °C under flowing nitrogen for 30 min. During this low-temperature pyrolysis the nano-lignin and amorphous carbon are converted into nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (N-GQDs), while the α-Si3N4 remains thermally stable; nitrogen doping is simultaneously introduced. (3) Step 3—Hot-pressing sintering (1400 °C, 60 min, N2). The pyrolyzed mixture is placed in graphite die and hot-pressed at 1400 °C for 60 min under nitrogen. The N-GQDs act as in-situ carbon additives that promote liquid-phase formation and accelerate the α → β transformation of Si3N4, yielding a primary β-Si3N4 matrix. (4) Step 4—High-temperature densification (1700 °C). The compact is further heated to 1700 °C to complete densification. The final microstructure is a dense silicon nitride-based composite in which β-Si3N4 grains are reinforced by uniformly dispersed N-GQDs, improving both mechanical strength and thermal conductivity.
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Figure 5. Ashby diagram of Young’s modulus–strength–porosity for biomineralized apatite (BA) and hydroxyapatite (HA) [36].
Figure 5. Ashby diagram of Young’s modulus–strength–porosity for biomineralized apatite (BA) and hydroxyapatite (HA) [36].
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Figure 6. Schematic diagram of osteoid structures at different scales [38].
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of osteoid structures at different scales [38].
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Table 1. Microstructure–property relationships in reactive infiltration sintering (RIS).
Table 1. Microstructure–property relationships in reactive infiltration sintering (RIS).
Template Material
(Pre-Treatment)		Process
Parameters
T
(°C)		Microstructural
Features
T
(h)		Mechanical
Properties
Si
(wt%)		Functional
Performance
Pore Size
(μm)		Porosity
(%)		Thermal Conductivity
(W/m·K)
Pinewood powder
(Phenolic resin)		165027050–200
(vascular)		22.3 ± 1.218.5 [7,14]
Bamboo veneers
(TEOS hybrid)		175038020–150
(graded)		18.7 ± 0.924.3 [8,12]
Oak sawdust
(Enzymatic lignin)		15501.5605–50
(mesopores)		35.1 ± 2.412.7 [9,17]
Cottonwood fiber
(CNT coating)		17002.57510–80
(aligned)		26.8 ± 1.831.6 [11,15]
Balsa wood
(No additive)		1600165100–300
(honeycomb)		42.5 ± 3.19.8 [10,16]
Table 2. Performance comparison of SiC woodceramics.
Table 2. Performance comparison of SiC woodceramics.
MaterialPorosity (%)Flexural Strength (MPa)Fracture Toughness (MPa·m0.5)Ref.
SiC Woodceramic (RIS)22–42100–1503.2–4.1[7,15,21]
SiC Woodceramic (HPS)0.5–2650+5.8–6.5[18,19]
Alumina5–10300–4003.5–4.0[22]
Si3N4 Porous40–5080–1002.0–2.5[23]
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Ji, S.; Sun, Y.; Zhang, H. A Minireview on Multiscale Structural Inheritance and Mechanical Performance Regulation of SiC Wood-Derived Ceramics via Reactive Sintering and Hot-Pressing. Forests 2025, 16, 1383. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091383

AMA Style

Ji S, Sun Y, Zhang H. A Minireview on Multiscale Structural Inheritance and Mechanical Performance Regulation of SiC Wood-Derived Ceramics via Reactive Sintering and Hot-Pressing. Forests. 2025; 16(9):1383. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091383

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ji, Shuying, Yixuan Sun, and Haiyang Zhang. 2025. "A Minireview on Multiscale Structural Inheritance and Mechanical Performance Regulation of SiC Wood-Derived Ceramics via Reactive Sintering and Hot-Pressing" Forests 16, no. 9: 1383. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091383

APA Style

Ji, S., Sun, Y., & Zhang, H. (2025). A Minireview on Multiscale Structural Inheritance and Mechanical Performance Regulation of SiC Wood-Derived Ceramics via Reactive Sintering and Hot-Pressing. Forests, 16(9), 1383. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091383

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