Biodiversity, Health, and Ecosystem Services of Mangroves

Mangroves, situated at the interface between land and sea, are among the most ecologically productive and economically valuable ecosystems in the world. They perform a range of critical functions [1,2], from stabilizing coastlines and regulating hydrological flows to supporting biodiversity, enhancing the productivity of fisheries and sequestering large amounts of carbon [3,4]. Their ability to provide a combination of provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services makes them vital to coastal resilience and global climate regulation.

Despite their importance, mangroves remain one of the most threatened ecosystems globally. Anthropogenic pressures including aquaculture expansion [5,6], coastal reclamation, pollution, logging and unregulated tourism, continue to result in the significant loss and degradation of mangrove habitats. Climate change further exacerbates these threats by contributing to sea level rise, increased salinity and altered hydrological regimes, which undermine mangrove regeneration and overall ecosystem health. It is within this context that a deeper understanding of mangrove biodiversity, health, and ecosystem services becomes urgently necessary [1].

Mangrove biodiversity is foundational to their resilience and functional integrity. Plant species diversity, faunal associations (such as birds, fish, and insects) and genetic variation within key mangrove species contribute to the overall health and adaptive capacity of these systems. Biodiversity also underpins ecosystem multifunctionality [7], enabling mangroves to provide diverse services even under environmental stress. However, habitat fragmentation, invasive species, and overharvesting pose serious threats to these biodiversity components, reducing resilience and increasing vulnerability to disturbance [5].

The health of mangrove ecosystems, defined here as their structural integrity, functional performance, and resilience to disturbances, is closely linked to, but broader than, biodiversity, which forms one of its fundamental components. Biophysical indicators, reflecting key dimensions of mangrove ecosystem health such as productivity, stress tolerance, regeneration capacity, and structural integrity, can be integrated with remote sensing metrics to develop comprehensive indices that represent the overall condition and functional performance of these ecosystems [8,9]. Emerging technologies, including drone-based assessments, hyperspectral imagery, and machine learning models, are now being applied to monitor mangrove health, defined in terms of structural integrity, functional capacity, and resilience, at fine spatial scales. These innovations enhance our ability to detect early signs of stress and to evaluate the outcomes of both restoration and rehabilitation efforts, recognizing that rehabilitated ecosystems may not fully recover all original ecological functions or structures.

Ecosystem services provided by mangroves extend far beyond coastal protection. They include carbon storage and sequestration, water purification, nutrient cycling, sediment stabilization, and the provision of habitat for commercial and subsistence fisheries. Cultural services, including spiritual value, recreational opportunities, and aesthetic contributions, are also increasingly recognized. In particular, the role of mangroves in climate change mitigation through blue carbon [3] has gained policy traction and is now central to many nature-based solution frameworks.

Novel approaches to mangrove conservation and management are essential given the scale and complexity of threats facing these ecosystems. Spatial planning tools, ecological network analysis, and scenario modeling provide new insights into trade-offs and synergies among different land-use strategies. Participatory approaches that include community-based monitoring, co-management models and the incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge are also proving effective in enhancing stewardship and sustainability [6].

Institutional and policy frameworks play a critical role in shaping mangrove outcomes. Fragmented governance, weak enforcement and overlapping jurisdictions often hinder effective protection. There is a growing need for integrated coastal zone management that explicitly incorporates mangrove conservation into broader development goals. International frameworks such as the Ramsar Convention, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration provide valuable platforms for cross-border collaboration and knowledge sharing [5,6,10].

This Special Issue, ‘Biodiversity, Health, and Ecosystem Services of Mangroves,’ contributes to the growing body of knowledge that aims to inform evidence-based policy and practice for mangrove sustainability. It highlights the importance of interdisciplinary research, the integration of ecological and social dimensions, and the application of innovative tools and technologies. Importantly, it underscores the need for collaboration across sectors and both spatial and institutional scales, from local communities and ecosystems to national policymakers and international agencies.

In conclusion, mangrove ecosystems represent both a critical ecological resource and a complex management challenge. Their conservation is not only a matter of preserving biodiversity or ecosystem functions but also of securing the livelihoods and well-being of millions of people. As pressure continues to mount, it is imperative to move beyond conventional conservation approaches and embrace adaptive, inclusive, and forward-looking strategies. We hope that the research presented in this Special Issue will serve as a catalyst for future efforts to protect and restore mangrove ecosystems globally.