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Article

How Do Plant Landscapes Provide Health Benefits to Residents in Urban Green Spaces? Exploring the Role of Restorative Experiences

by
Yuling Zhang
1,*,
Yuting Fang
2,
Mengqing Wang
3 and
Wenjing Li
1
1
School of Management, Foshan University, Foshan 528051, China
2
School of Economics, Foshan University, Foshan 528051, China
3
Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61820, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2024, 15(8), 1424; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081424
Submission received: 2 July 2024 / Revised: 7 August 2024 / Accepted: 12 August 2024 / Published: 14 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)
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Abstract

:
Plants are considered important elements of ecosystems and benefit the health of human society. However, it is unclear which attributes of plant landscapes effectively influence residents’ health in urban areas and whether this influence is moderated by other factors, such as stress. This study considers the link between the plant landscape and residents’ experiences and health benefit perceptions. The possible structural relationships between them are verified with structural equation modeling on the basis of stimulus–organism–response theory and attention restoration theory. In addition, the mediating effect and moderating effect are tested via the SPSS Process program. The results indicate that two dimensions of plant landscapes, landscape esthetics/ functionality and vegetation density, influence residents’ restorative experiences and, in turn, impact health. Only the compatibility experience and the being-away experience mediate the relationship between the plant landscape and perceived health benefits. Stress does not moderate the mediating effect of restorative experiences on the relationship between plant landscapes and perceived health benefits. On the basis of these findings, valuable information is offered concerning forest city construction and urban green space planning for the purpose of generating desirable public health and well-being.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

In the Anthropocene era, which is dominated by human influence, a plethora of challenges, such as growing and expanding metropolitan areas, threaten human and environmental well-being. The rapid decline of natural ecosystems and fast-growing populations has led to a significant increase in urban health problems such as depression, suicide, cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and type II diabetes. This trend seriously deviates from the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. One approach to address these issues faced by urban populations is improving access to green spaces [1]. The natural elements in green spaces, such as mountains, water, plants, grasses, fish, and insects, are important factors in promoting people’s physical and mental health [1,2,3,4,5]. The academic community has confirmed through electrocardiogram, electroencephalogram, and galvanic skin response experiments that subjects who visit green spaces have higher T-wave amplitude and alpha wave levels than those in nongreen spaces, whereas blood pressure, pulse rate, cortisol levels, and skin conductance levels are lower in those in green spaces [6,7,8,9]. However, the specific mechanisms underlying the relationship between plant landscapes and health restoration in green spaces remain unknown [8,10,11,12].
Central to this inquiry is the identification of the appropriate media for natural health information dissemination. The health-promoting information inherent in nature, which contributes to people’s physical and mental well-being, is acquired through human sensory organs such as vision, smell, and touch [13,14]. In the interaction between people and green space, we are not only observers but also participants and receivers. This interaction, as a unique medium, carries natural health information and affects our physical and mental health. We call this interaction between humans and nature, which promotes the acquisition of health benefits, a restorative experience. Despite many achievements in the academic community concerning the relationship between plants and human physical and mental health, such as the differences in the role of different plant communities in alleviating public stress [15]; the influence of plant color on human psychology [16]; the regulation of emotions, attention levels, and blood pressure by plant fragrances [17]; and the triggering of allergies and related diseases by plant pollen [18], the construction of green space has focused on the provision of fitness equipment to promote residents’ physical activity in urban planning. Visual esthetic or urban landscape considerations overlook the role of plants in residents’ restorative experiences, and restorative results in the design of green space are common in developing countries. Therefore, exploring which attributes of plant landscapes can bring residents restorative experiences and health benefits is crucial for urban green space planning and public well-being.
With an expanding body of evidence underscoring the role of natural settings—including forests, grasslands, and waterside locales—in mitigating both physical and psychological stress-related health issues [1,19,20], a nuanced question emerges: is there a discernible variance in the efficacy of green space assessment on restoration experiences across different stress groups? In other words, it is unclear whether the impact of restorative experiences on the nexus between plant-based landscapes and health outcomes is modulated by an individual’s stress levels. This inquiry not only deepens our comprehension of the intricate interplay between human health and the natural world but also highlights the critical need for tailored therapeutic strategies that leverage the healing power of nature and consider the diversity of people’s stress backgrounds.
This research adopted stimulus–organism–response theory (SOR theory) and attention restoration theory to determine the health benefit responses to plant landscapes in green spaces. Specifically, we aimed to (1) explore the relationships among the plant landscape, restorative experience, and residents’ perceived health benefits; (2) verify the mediating effects of experience on the relationship between the plant landscape and perceived health benefits; and (3) examine whether stress moderates the mediating effects of restorative experience on the relationship between the plant landscape and perceived health benefits.

2. Literature Review and Research Hypotheses

2.1. Attention Restoration Theory and the Relationship between Nature and Restorative Experience

Attention restoration theory and previous research findings on nature and restoration experiences were used to analyze the relationship between plant landscapes and restoration experiences. Attention restoration theory (ART), which was proposed by Kaplans, suggests that restorative environments are characterized by four features: being away, extent, fascination, and compatibility [21]. Being away refers to psychological and geographical distance from a daily environment that causes fatigue and attention decline and thereby facilitates the individual’s attention recovery. Incongruity refers to inconsistency, incongruity, or contradiction. Moderate incongruity may help break up a monotonous or boring environment, thereby attracting people’s attention and promoting attention recovery. However, excessive incongruity may lead to cognitive confusion and anxiety, which is not conducive to attention recovery. Fascination refers to the ability of the environment to easily attract people’s attention and interest when it is attractive enough, thus avoiding deliberate concentration and allowing people to recover. Compatibility refers to the matching of personal needs, behaviors, and environments. Natural elements are often considered to have a high degree of compatibility because they can resonate with the preferences and interests of recreational visitors [22]. Through restorative environments, people can achieve the goal of attention restoration, which means attaining restorative experiences. Many factors affect restorative experiences, such as being in particular places (duration of stay and frequency of visits), daily stress, nature connectedness, place attachment, environmental preference, and personality characteristics [23]. The restorative experience in natural places, such as extensively managed natural settings (mainly urban woodlands), is directly related to perceived health, reflecting not only one’s physical condition but also emotional regulation and adjustment [24]. Karin and Ulrika studied the relationship between the evaluation of park green landscapes and restorative experiences and reported that the greater people’s evaluations of green landscapes are, the greater their restorative experiences will be [25]. Moreover, the perceived naturalness of green landscapes affects people’s preferences. When a green landscape is closer to its natural state, that is, when the perceived naturalness is greater, people are more likely to prefer it, such that the restorative effect of the green environment is greater [14,26]. As an essential natural element and green space component, plants provide a material carrier for people to experience during recreational activities, and their restorative effects on people’s mental, emotional, and physical health are evident. Our hypothesis that the plant landscape affects restorative experiences is as follows:
Hypothesis 1:
Plant landscapes stimulate residents’ restorative experiences.
Hypothesis 1a1:
Landscape esthetics and functionality stimulate residents’ fascination experiences.
Hypothesis 1a2:
Landscape esthetics and functionality stimulate residents’ compatibility experiences.
Hypothesis 1a3:
Landscape esthetics and functionality stimulate residents’ incongruity experiences.
Hypothesis 1a4:
Landscape esthetics and functionality stimulate residents’ being-away experiences.
Hypothesis 1b1:
Vegetation density stimulates residents’ fascination experiences.
Hypothesis 1b2:
Vegetation density stimulates residents’ compatibility experiences.
Hypothesis 1b3:
Vegetation density stimulates residents’ incongruity experiences.
Hypothesis 1b4:
Vegetation density stimulates residents’ being-away experiences.
Hypothesis 1c1:
The growth status of plants stimulates residents’ fascination experiences.
Hypothesis 1c2:
The growth status of plants stimulates residents’ compatibility experiences.
Hypothesis 1c3:
The growth status of plants stimulates residents’ incongruity experiences.
Hypothesis 1c4:
The growth status of plants stimulates residents’ being-away experiences.

2.2. The Relationship between Experience/Restorative Experience and Health

On the basis of previous conclusions about the positive impact of positive experiences on individuals’ physical and mental health, we explore the relationship between restorative experiences and perceived health benefits in a plant-based landscape environment. According to the sustainable livelihood framework, a livelihood that includes positive experiences can increase people’s dynamic thinking and path thinking and increase their satisfaction with life, hope, and happiness. Increasing individuals’ positive experiences is an effective way to develop a positive personality, positive strength, and positive qualities [27]. Therefore, positive experiences can improve people’s mental health from a positive perspective. The relationship between experience and health has been explored in the field of leisure sports. Tian reported that the flow experience gained during leisure activities has positive effects on college students’ physical and mental health (physical health, anxiety, and depression) [28]. It is well known that a restorative experience in a natural setting, as a type of positive experience, has a positive impact on the physical and mental health of the public [29]. Chang and colleagues verified that perceived recovery in natural environments is highly correlated with three physiological responses, which were tested by electromyography, electrocephalography, and blood volume pulse. Experimental data validated that the improvement in perceived recovery scores corresponded to an increase in electromyography and electrocephalography and a decrease in blood volume pulse measurements [30]. Liu’s empirical research on Fuzhou National Forest Park revealed that the recovery experience has a significant positive effect on interviewees’ health benefits, and the four dimensions of the restorative experience—distance, extensibility, charm, and compatibility—have a significant effect on eliminating fatigue, restoring vitality, and increasing a calm mood, concentration, and attention, as well as other health benefits [31]. However, Xi’s research indicated that only psychological distance and charm have a significant effect on psychological recovery [32]. In addition, some scholars have reported that the restoration experience in the natural environment is conducive to improving individual interpersonal relationships, specifically, social health effects [20]. On the basis of previous relevant research conclusions, we propose the following research hypotheses:
Hypothesis 2:
The restorative experience stimulates perceived health benefits.
Hypothesis 2a:
The fascination experience stimulates perceived health benefits.
Hypothesis 2b:
The compatibility experience stimulates perceived health benefits.
Hypothesis 2c:
The incongruity experience stimulates perceived health benefits.
Hypothesis 2d:
The being-away experience stimulates perceived health benefits.

2.3. Stimulus–Organism–Response Theory and the Mediating Role of Restorative Experiences

The stimulus–organism–response (SOR) theory clearly explains the causal chain relationship between S, O, and R. We use SOR theory to study the mediating effect of restorative experience (O) between plant landscapes (S) and perceived health benefits (R) [33]. SOR theory originates from psychology and is used mainly to explain the impact of environmental factors on an individual’s psychological activities and behaviors [33]. Early scholars ignored the inner activities of individuals and regarded the S-R model as a ‘black box’. In the 1930s, the S-R model was corrected and optimized by adding an O variable, resulting in SOR theory, where S refers to the external stimulus, which has a certain impact on people; O refers to the stimulated person’s cognition and emotion; and R refers to individuals’ corresponding response after receiving the stimulus through certain internal activities, such as acceptance or rejection, adoption or avoidance [33,34]. From the perspective of health and hygiene, the physical and psychological results of an individual after being stimulated by the external world can be considered a triggered response (R) in the environment. Zhang et al.’s meta-analysis proved that perceived restorativeness mediates the relationship between green space and health [35]. Therefore, using the S-O-R framework [29], we propose that plant landscapes influence viewers’ overall perceived attention restoration [21] and, ultimately, their physical and psychological health responses. We propose a third hypothesis as follows:
Hypotheses 3:
Restorative experiences mediate the relationship between plant landscapes and residents’ perceived health benefits.

2.4. Stress as a Moderator of the Relationship between Plant Landscapes and Health

On the basis of previous research on the relationship among green exposure, stress, and health, this section explores the impact of stress on the relationship between plant landscapes and perceived health benefits. We all have experienced letting go of our work and engaging in a sport or going out for leisure activities when we feel pressure from studying, working, or living, which can help us recover physically and mentally and regain our strength. Korpela et al. revealed that the more stressed a person felt during the previous year and the less energetic he felt, the lower the number of that person’s visits to nature and the lower the typical level of that person’s restorative experiences would be [24]. Markevych et al. and Zhang et al. noted that the effect of green space exposure on mental well-being is mediated by perceived stress [35,36]. However, Yu and Kwan noted that the relationship between green space exposure and mental health varies across communities with different socioeconomic attributes [37]. Whether personal stress moderates the mediating effects of restorative experiences on the relationship between plant landscapes and health in green spaces has not yet been studied. Here, we propose the following research hypothesis:
Hypothesis 4:
Personal stress moderates the mediating effects of restorative experiences on the relationship between plant landscapes and residents’ perceived health benefits.
We constructed the conceptual model depicted in Figure 1.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Study Site

Foshan is in the hinterland of the Pearl River Delta in the central part of Guangdong Province and is an important node city in the Guangdong Hong Kong Macao Greater Bay Area, China (Figure 2). Not only is Foshan an advanced manufacturing base in China and a national historical and cultural city, but it also holds the title of a “forest city”, as of 5 January 2024, China has built a total of 219 national forest cities. The main criteria for the selection of forest cities are as follows: 1) The green coverage rate of urban areas is ≥40%, the per capita park green area in urban areas is more than 11 square meters, the street tree crown coverage rate in urban areas is more than 25%, and the arbor tree crown coverage rate in urban ground parking lots is more than 30%. 2) The greening rate of waterfronts is ≥80%, the greening rate of green channel lines is ≥80%, and the proportion of native tree species in urban greening tree species is ≥80%. 3) There are many leisure green spaces in the built-up areas, mainly consisting of various parks and public green spaces. Most citizens have access to leisure green spaces within an average of 500 meters of their homes. In the past five years, the city has built 833.36 hectares of new park green space, renovated 526.05 hectares of park green space, and built over 30 large parks (with a total area of more than 100,000 square meters). Under the guidance of the State Forestry Administration and the planning and construction of local governments, the green coverage rate in the built-up area of Foshan increased from 40.98% to 46.12%, and the per capita park green space increased from 14.67 square meters to 19.2 square meters. Therefore, Foshan ranks ninth in the ranking of urban greening in China. An increase in green space area and storage plays an important role in alleviating air pollution, improving quality of living, and promoting sustainable economic and social development in Foshan city. This study selected representative urban green spaces such as Asian Art Park, Sun Yat-sen Park, Thousand-Lamp Lake Park, and Cultural Park in the urban area of Foshan city with high pedestrian flow, large areas, and well-equipped facilities as case studies on the basis of online recommendations. These urban green spaces are all located in central urban areas with convenient transportation, high reachability for residents, and good plant landscape environments. They are appropriate cases for studying green space and the restoration experiences of individuals seeking recreation.

3.2. Measures and Indicators

The scales used in this survey included a plant landscape scale (natural health information source), a restorative experience scale (media), a physical and mental health perception scale (health results), and a personal stress perception scale. Except for the scale of restorative experience, all other scales were designed on the basis of existing research results and the green space context. On the basis of Liu’s [38] and Li’s [39] research, a scale of 18 measurement indicators was established on five dimensions: landscape esthetics, service and function, ecological value, individual plants, and economic value. We invited five experts, three from the field of tourism planning and two from the field of landscape architecture, to discuss the scales. Finally, we deleted the economic value dimension, considering the actual situation, to determine the plant landscape scale with 15 measurement indicators. On the basis of Chen’s, Liu’s, and Su’s [31,40,41] scales and the actual situation of urban parks, a total of four dimensions (distance, charm, inconsistency, and compatibility) and 22 measurement indicators were selected. The physical and mental health perception scale was designed to measure indicators based on four aspects: physiological health, psychological health, emotional health, and social relationship health. The above indicators were measured on a 5-point Likert scale. The questionnaire consisted of two parts: the measurement items of the scale and the demographic characteristics of the participants.

3.3. Survey Design and Data Collection

In the presurvey, 30 college students were invited to complete a questionnaire, and the reliability and validity of the questionnaire were tested. The index (This place is dazzling to me) of the restorative experience scale was estimated and deleted as a separate dimension, and the total number of measurement indicators in the final questionnaire was 21. The formal research questionnaire survey team consisted of six people, and the survey period was 2–15 July 2022. Owing to hot weather and thunderstorms, two periods—7:30–10:30 a.m. and 16:30–19:30 p.m.—were selected for daily work. By adopting a convenience sampling method, tourists who were willing to participate in the survey were selected from the park, and sachets were given as thank-you gifts. A total of 350 questionnaires were distributed, and 324 were collected. The effective response rate was 85.7%, with 300 valid questionnaires.

3.4. Analysis Technique

A sequential progression of statistical evaluations was undertaken. Initially, a frequency assessment was implemented to gain insights into the fundamental attributes of the sample. An exploratory factorial analysis was subsequently employed to delve into the plant landscape, restorative experiences, perceived health benefits, and stress perceptions. Moreover, the reliability and validity of the measurement scales were assessed. Next, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted via AMOS 22.0 to establish confidence in the measurement model, precisely delineating the hypothesized connections between observable variables and their underlying constructs. Next, structural equation modeling (SEM) with AMOS 22.0 was applied to examine the hypotheses. This approach systematically navigated through the intricate causal networks involving multiple latent variables, each comprehensively gauged by an array of indicators. Finally, the mediating effect of restorative experiences was tested via SPSS PROCESS Model 4, and the moderating effect of stress was verified via SPSS PROCESS Model 7.

4. Results

4.1. Descriptive Statistics

Male and female interviewees accounted for 52.60% and 47.40% of the sample, respectively (Table 1). A total of 24.4% of the respondents were younger than 18 years, 32.50% were aged between 18 and 30 years, 22.40% were aged between 31 and 50 years, and 20.70% were aged older than 50 years. In general, 43.10% of the respondents had a high level of education, 43.10% had a university/college graduate education, 28.10% had a high school or technical school education, and 28.1% had an educational level less than high school. Most of the respondents (67.50%) earned less than ¥5000 per month, 16.10% earned ¥5001 to ¥10,000 per month, and 11.5% earned ¥10,001 to ¥15,000 per month. In addition, Harman’s single-factor test was implemented to examine the common method variance. The results showed that the measurement items of all the scales could be divided into eight factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0. Moreover, the first single factor explained 27.89% of the variance, which is lower than the criterion of 45.00%. This result indicated that common method variance was not a problem in this study.

4.2. Measurement Model

Exploratory factor analysis was used to ensure the underlying dimensionality of the data. For all the items with loadings >0.50, the alpha reliability (>0.75) and Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (>0.75) values of the measurement scales were acceptable (Table 2). All the items had corrected item-to-total correlations above 0.30. In total, nine factors were extracted from the four measurement scales. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis suggested an acceptable measurement model fit: χ2/df = 2.18 (p = 0.00), GFI = 0.84, PGFI = 0.68, PNFI = 0.67, PCFI = 0.76, and RMSEA = 0.06. The composite reliability values for each construct exceeded 0.70, further confirming the internal consistency of the indicators (Table 2). All the factor loadings exceeded 0.45, which indicated good convergent validity. Some average variance extracted (AVE) values were lower than the recommended value of 0.50 (Table 2). However, the factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha, and composite reliability values of vegetation density, the growth status of plants, landscape esthetics and functionality, incongruity experience, and being-away experience all exceeded the recommended level (Table 2), which suggested that the 0.43, 0.45, 0.46, and 0.48 AVE values were not a serious threat to the validity of the measurement constructs.

4.3. Structural Model

The fit indices of the structural model were as follows: χ2/df = 2.22, CFI = 0.83, PGFI = 0.69, PNFI = 0.67, PCFI = 0.77, RMSEA = 0.06, and RMR = 0.05. The results revealed that the model fit of the data was acceptable. The results of the hypothesis testing are shown in Figure 3. The effects of landscape esthetics and functionality on fascination experience (ß = 0.58, p < 0.01), compatibility experience (ß = 0.56, p < 0.01), incongruity experience (ß = −0.34, p < 0.01), and being-away experience (ß = 0.43, p < 0.01) were all significant, supporting H1a1, H1a2, H1a3, and H1a4. Moreover, the effects of vegetation density on fascination experience (ß = 0.21, p < 0.01), compatibility experience (ß = 0.20, p < 0.01), incongruity experience (ß = 0.24, p < 0.01), and being-away experience (ß = 0.29, p < 0.01) were also significant. Therefore, H1b1, H1b2, H1b3, and H1b4 were supported. It is worth investigating the negative influence of landscape esthetics and functionality on incongruity experiences. However, growth status was not significantly associated with fascination experience (ß = 0.02, p < 0.1), compatibility experience (ß = 0.04, p > 0.1), incongruity experience (ß = −0.09, p > 0.1), or being-away experience (ß = 0.24, p > 0.1), which contradicts H1c1, H1c2, H1c3, and H1c4. In addition, fascination experience and incongruity experience insignificantly affect perceived health benefits, and compatibility experience and being-away experience are associated with perceived health benefits. Therefore, H2b and H2d were supported, and H2a and H2c were not supported.

4.4. Mediation Analysis

To improve efficiency and consider the results of the data fit of the structural equation analysis, we tested only the mediating effect of four causal chains: vegetation density → compatibility experience → perceived health benefits, vegetation density → being-away experience → perceived health benefits, landscape esthetics and functionality → compatibility experience → perceived health benefits, and landscape esthetics and functionality → being-away experience → perceived health benefits. The results suggest a significant indirect effect of vegetation density through compatibility experience on perceived health benefits (β = 0.21, 95% CI [0.14, 0.36]); vegetation density through being-away experience on perceived health benefits (β = 0.17, 95% CI [0.10, 0.27]); landscape esthetics and functionality through compatibility experience on perceived health benefits (β = 0.30, 95% CI [0.21, 0.41]); and landscape esthetics and functionality through being-away experience on perceived health benefits (β = 0.21, 95% CI [0.12, 0.32]; Table 3). Hypothesis H3 was partly supported.

4.5. Moderated Mediation Analysis

The mediating effects of restorative experiences on the relationships between the plant landscape and perceived health benefits moderated by stress were tested via the SPSS process. In addition, the overall model with landscape esthetics and functionality as the independent variables and gender, age, educational background, and income as control variables was statistically significant (R2 = 0.33, F = 19.95, p = 0.000; R2 = 0.46, F = 35.18, p = 0.000; R2 = 0.11, F = 4.36, p = 0.000; R2 = 0.37, F = 24.71, p = 0.000). However, the interactions of landscape esthetics with functionality and stress on fascination experience (β = −0.08, p > 0.10); compatibility experience (β = −0.02, p > 0.10); incongruity experience (β = 0.16, p > 0.05); and being-away experience (β = −0.04, p > 0.10) were not statistically significant. Moreover, the CI of the index of moderated mediation did not differ from zero with 95% confidence (β = −0.03, SE = 0.02, 95% CI: −0.06 to 0.01; β = −0.01, SE = 0.03, 95% CI: −0.08 to 0.05; β = −0.01, SE = 0.01, 95% CI: −0.04 to 0.01; β = −0.02, SE = 0.03, 95% CI: −0.07 to 0.05). The results indicated that the overall model with vegetation density as the independent variable was significant (F = 12.57, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.26; F = 36.13, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.47; F = 3.88, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.10), with no significant interactions between vegetation density and stress on fascination experience (β = 0.02, p > 0.10); compatibility experience (β = 0.01, p > 0.10); incongruity experience (β = 0.01, p > 0.10) or a significant interaction between vegetation density and stress on being-away experience (β = −0.09, p < 0.05). The CI of the index of moderated mediation did not differ from zero with 95% confidence (β = −0.01, SE = 0.02, 95% CI: −0.05 to 0.03; β = −0.03, SE = 0.03, 95% CI: −0.103 to 0.03; β = −0.01, SE = 0.01, 95% CI: −0.03 to 0.01; β = −0.04, SE = 0.03, 95% CI: −0.10 to 0.01; Table 4). As such, we cannot say with 95% confidence that the indirect effect (via restorative experiences) of vegetation density on perceived health benefits was significantly moderated by stress. In addition, the overall model with growth status as the independent variable was also statistically significant (R2 = 0.29, F = 16.84, p = 0.000; R2 = 0.44, F = 32.91, p = 0.000; R2 = 0.323, F = 33.719, p = 0.000), with a significant interaction effect between growth status and stress on compatibility experience (β = 0.12, p < 0.001). The interaction effects of growth status and stress on fascination experience (β = 0.07, p > 0.10); incongruity experience (β = 0.11, p > 0.05), and being-away experience (β = −0.01, p > 0.10) were not significant. Moreover, the CI of the index of moderated mediation did not differ from zero with 95% confidence (β = 0.03, SE = 0.03, 95% CI: −0.04 to 0.09; β = 0.09, SE = 0.04, 95% CI: −0.01 to 0.17; β = −0.01, SE = 0.01, 95% CI: −0.03 to 0.01; β = −0.00, SE = 0.03, 95% CI: −0.08 to 0.08). Therefore, the indirect effect (via restorative experiences) of growth status on perceived health benefits was not significantly moderated by stress. Hence, the mediating effects of restorative experiences on the relationships between plant landscapes and perceived health benefits moderated by stress were not supported, and H4 was rejected.

5. Discussion

5.1. Theoretical Implications

5.1.1. There Are Relationships among Plant Landscapes, Residents’ Restorative Experiences, and Perceived Health Benefits

The results revealed a link between plant landscapes, residents’ restorative experiences, and their perceived health benefits in urban green spaces. Specifically, the esthetics and functionality and vegetation density dimensions of the plant landscape positively influence the four dimensions of the restorative experience separately (being away, incoherence, fascination, and compatibility), except for the path of plant landscape esthetics and functionality → incongruity experience. However, the plant growth dimension of the plant landscape has no significant effect on residents’ restorative experience. These results partly support Karin and Ulrika’s finding that the greater a person’s evaluation of green space is, the greater the restorative experience score will be [25]. Notably, in our study, the incongruity experience is a reverse measure, representing a negative restorative experience. The beauty of the form, color, and artistic conception of a plant landscape make residents physically and mentally happy through visual stimulation and do not lead to negative experiences such as chaos, overwhelm, or confusion. Therefore, visitors’ incongruity experiences were negatively affected by plant landscape esthetics and functionality. However, vegetation density significantly positively affects the incongruity experience. A greater number of trees planted per unit area or a greater variety of plant species within a fixed space will increase vegetation density. Individuals are caused to feel isolated from the outside by a space with high vegetation density. Under such a context, they will experience panic, insecurity, and other feelings that affect their mood and negatively impact their recreational experience [3,11,42]. Residents’ restorative experiences significantly influence their health only in the paths of being away → perceived health benefits and compatibility → perceived health benefits. Our findings support previous research showing that restorative environments positively impact people’s physical, mental, and emotional well-being [19,43]. The various characteristics of the restorative environment provide a corresponding recreational experience (being away, incoherence, fascination, and compatibility), resulting in health impacts [44,45]. However, we do not support the viewpoint that there are no direct relationships between restorative experiences and health variables [24].

5.1.2. Experiences Mediate the Relationship between Plant Landscapes and Perceived Health Benefits

This study clarifies the mediating role of residents’ restorative experiences in the relationship between plant landscapes and perceived health benefits. Specifically, by carefully designing the esthetic and functional characteristics of plant landscapes and reasonably controlling vegetation density (reducing the sense of insecurity caused by spatial line-of-sight obstruction), it is possible to achieve the effect of restoring residents’ attention, thereby promoting experiences of environments matching personal needs and behaviors and experiences away from daily life/work and achieving health benefits. Previous studies in the field of natural exposure have largely focused on the role of biophilic therapy—the direct influence of nature on restorative experiences or the direct influence of nature on health effects [37,46,47]. In addition to attention restoration theory [21] and stress recovery theory [46], which are commonly utilized in biophilic therapy studies, a new theoretical framework is established in this study by synthesizing the S-O-R framework [33] and attention restoration theory [21,48] to explain how the plant landscape is related to the health effects of residents. Moreover, this study reveals that by designing plant landscape esthetics and functionality and controlling vegetation density, health effects are possible via attention restoration among residents.

5.1.3. Stress Does Not Moderate the Mediating Effect of Restorative Experiences on the Relationship between Plant Landscapes and Perceived Health Benefits

This study reveals that stress does not moderate the mediating effects of restorative experiences on plant landscapes or perceived health benefits. In other words, regardless of stress level, exposure to plant landscapes can generally promote people’s physical and mental health. This benefit may stem from the restorative qualities of the natural elements themselves, such as visual appeal, ecological richness, and distance from noise. These qualities can trigger positive emotional responses, reduce stress, and promote physical and mental recovery. Restorative experiences are influenced not only by individual stress levels but also by a variety of other factors, such as environmental quality, personal psychological state, cultural background, and life experience. These factors may regulate the relationship between plant landscapes and restorative experiences to varying degrees [8,46,49]. When the combined effects of these factors are strong enough, they may mask the single influence of stress levels on restorative experiences, resulting in no significant moderating effect of stress levels on the mediating effects. Our results do not support Korpela et al.’s viewpoint that the greater the stress, the lower the level of restorative experience will be [24]. The mediating effects of restorative experiences on plant landscapes and perceived health benefits were not significantly greater in the high-stress group than in the low-stress group. This result is consistent with stress reduction theory [46,50], which suggests that throughout the long process of evolution, humans have developed a reliance on certain natural features to cope with stress. This evolutionary adaptation fundamentally determines humans’ innate positive responses to nature, especially to features such as vegetation, regardless of the original stress state of an individual.

5.2. Implications of Findings for Green Space Management

5.2.1. Prioritizing the Aesthetic and Functional Features of Plant Landscapes to Improve Citizens’ Restorative Experiences

The esthetic and functional aspects of plant landscapes have been demonstrated to significantly and positively impact residents’ restorative experiences in urban green spaces. In urban landscape design and planning, a diverse selection of flora, including flowers, trees, and shrubs, should be chosen to create visually rich and layered landscapes with diverse forms and colors. Leveraging the shapes and contours of plants, artistic landscape forms can be designed to emphasize the esthetic perception of space, fostering pleasant visual experiences. This, in turn, allows residents to momentarily escape from the stresses of work and daily life. In high-density urban environments with scarce land resources, the esthetic design of plant landscapes should be prioritized for pocket parks and community greening. Given the limited green landscape supply, maximizing the physical and mental health benefits of residents should be the goal. Additionally, arranging leisure seating, installing recreational facilities, planning walking paths, and establishing rehabilitation zones, coupled with organizing regular social gatherings and various community activities in urban green spaces, expands the social service functions of these areas. Vegetation density has been identified as a crucial factor influencing residents’ restoration experiences, with a significant negative correlation observed between path vegetation density and consistency. Therefore, it is crucial to thoroughly consider the roles of overview and control in the planning and maintenance of vegetation. It is essential to ensure the perception of personal safety, a factor that has proven to be critically important yet is often overlooked in efforts to achieve restorative effects in a landscape setting. For example, sufficiently penetrable spaces and enough visual access should be planned to allow people to see and be seen by others, remain alone without being isolated, and be able to read and take control of their surroundings. The growth status of vegetation did not significantly impact residents’ restorative experiences, indicating that in urban environments, plant growth may not be the primary concern for residents. Therefore, in urban planning, emphasis on static esthetics and functionality may be deemed more crucial, while variations in plant growth could be considered a secondary factor.

5.2.2. Valuing Plant Landscape Design for “Being-Away” and “Compatibility” Experiences When Providing Opportunities for Green Space Exposure

Urban parks and green space planning should prioritize improving the design of plant landscapes to create “being-away” and “compatibility” experiences to meet citizens’ physical and mental health needs. Additionally, aspects of “incoherence” and “fascination experiences” should be addressed to ensure the provision of high-quality leisure and recreational spaces for residents. First, the improvement of the design dimension of “being away” requires an environment to be created that allows citizens to temporarily escape from the hustle and bustle and stressful urban life. By skillfully utilizing natural elements such as terrain, vegetation, and water systems, we can construct spaces that are both private and serene, allowing citizens to relax both physically and mentally. Simultaneously, the safety and comfort of these spaces need to be ensured so that citizens can truly experience the joy and relaxation brought about by “being away”. Second, harmonizing urban parks and green spaces with the surrounding environment, culture, and society is required to enhance the design dimension of “compatibility”. This includes the harmonious unity of landscapes, the user-friendly design of facilities, and the integration of cultural elements. Through careful planning, we can create a space that is both esthetically pleasing and practical, allowing citizens to experience the harmonious coexistence of nature and the city. However, we cannot overlook the “coordinated” and “fascination” dimensions. Although they did not have significant mediating effects in this study, this does not mean that they are unimportant. In contrast, a high-quality leisure and recreational space should accommodate people of different ages and cultural backgrounds while also possessing sufficient appeal to attract citizens. Therefore, during the planning process, we must carefully address these two dimensions to ensure that the design of parks and green spaces not only meets the esthetic preferences of the public but also satisfies diverse needs. Creating high-quality, comfortable, and harmonious leisure and recreational spaces for citizens can not only improve their quality of life but also contribute to the city’s sustainable development.

5.2.3. Improving Green Space Planning via Plants for the Win–Win of Physical and Mental Well-Being

Regardless of whether residents are under high or low stress, plant landscapes can positively impact their physical and mental health through restorative experiences. Therefore, it is essential to universally prioritize the optimization of green space with a focus on accessibility, convenience, and public participation to provide residents with a more high-quality, comfortable, and healthy recreational environment in urban construction. By increasing vegetation coverage, optimizing landscape layout, and providing diverse recreational facilities, attractive and restorative green spaces can be created to meet the needs of residents with different stress levels. Moreover, optimizing transportation networks, providing clear directional signs, and offering convenient public facilities can lower the threshold for residents to visit green space parks, increasing their frequency of use and satisfaction. In addition, feedback mechanisms should be established to swiftly and effectively provide updates regarding the effectiveness of green spaces and residents’ satisfaction with them. Through questionnaires, interviews, and other methods, opinions and suggestions from residents can be collected to optimally address issues and continuously improve the service quality and recreational experience of green space parks.

5.3. Limitations

Our research is limited to 13 urban parks in Foshan, so the conclusions drawn have certain geographical limitations. In the future, we hope that scholars can expand the scope of this research, explore urban parks in different latitudinal zones, and further investigate sample data across cultural backgrounds to verify whether the framework and conclusions proposed in this study have broader applicability. Moreover, structural equation modeling has certain limitations, such as its handling of control variables and the possible impact of model complexity on analysis results. In addition, our research reveals that, under specific circumstances, personal stress is not a significant moderator of the relationship between plant landscapes and restorative experiences. This does not mean that stress has no impact on human health but rather that there are multiple factors, such as environmental quality, individual psychological state, cultural background, and lifestyle habits, that work together in a complex health benefit mechanism. The interactions among these factors may vary depending on environmental and individual factors. Future research can further explore the interactions among these factors and how green spaces, such as plant landscapes, can be better utilized to promote human health. In view of this, we hope that more scientific and reasonable research methods will be developed in the future, which can further explore whether the model we propose can maintain its stability and validity when other factors are involved while fully considering factors such as social structural variables.

6. Conclusions

This study integrates the S-O-R model with ART to deepen the understanding of the interactions between humans and nature during botanical healing/nature exposure, particularly in response to specific stimuli in plant landscapes. This study provides theoretical support for assessing the mental and physical restoration potential of urban green spaces. Research has shown that in terms of the relationship between plant landscapes and perceived physical and mental health, the stress state of recreators does not regulate the mediating effect of restorative experiences, providing us with boundary conditions for the impact of individual psychological states on the restorative power of plants. This finding challenges the potential presumption that an individual’s psychological state significantly affects the restorative effect of the natural environment, thereby providing a new perspective on the complexity of individual psychological differences in the natural recovery process. Moreover, the conclusions of this study indirectly support the universality of restorative experiences, suggesting that individuals with different levels of stress may experience similar levels of restoration in green spaces. This further demonstrates the universal role of plants in promoting public mental health, supporting the view that urban green spaces have potential benefits for everyone. This has important implications for the construction of forest cities as well as for promoting humanized and ecological urban park design.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.Z.; methodology, Y.Z.; software, Y.F.; formal analysis, M.W.; investigation, W.L., Y.F. and M.W.; data curation, Y.F.; resources, W.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z. and Y.F.; writing—review and editing, Y.Z. and W.L.; visualization, M.W.; supervision, Y.Z.; project administration, Y.Z.; funding acquisition, Y.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [42171242]; Guangdong Provincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Project [GD23CSH01].

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy reasons.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Forests 15 01424 g001
Figure 1. Conceptual model.
Figure 1. Conceptual model.
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Figure 2. Overview map of the research site.
Figure 2. Overview map of the research site.
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Figure 3. Results of SEM analysis.
Figure 3. Results of SEM analysis.
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Table 1. Sociodemographic profile of the study participants, 2022 (n = 324).
Table 1. Sociodemographic profile of the study participants, 2022 (n = 324).
Demographic CharacteristicsPercentage (%)Demographic CharacteristicsPercentage (%)
GenderMale52.60 Associate/bachelor’s degree43.10
Female47.40Master’s or higher degree0.70
AgeLess than 1824.40Monthly incomeLess than ¥500067.50
19–3032.50¥5001–¥10,00016.10
31–5022.40¥10,001–¥15,00011.50
More than 5020.70¥15,001–¥10,0003.10
Educational levelLess than high school28.10More than ¥20,0011.70
High school/technical school28.10
Table 2. Individual item reliability and construct validity.
Table 2. Individual item reliability and construct validity.
Factor LoadingItems-Total
Correlation		CRAVE
Measurement scale of plant landscape (α = 0.86, KMO = 0.85)
Here, the trees have lush foliage, with no signs of disease, pests, or withering0.83 0.380.700.45
All plants here grow well, with no leaning branches0.80 0.42
All plants here coexist harmoniously with the environment0.52 0.51
Here, the plants are characterized by rich colors and diverse species 0.60 0.560.860.47
The planting forms here are diverse (one tree, one pile, one column, one group) 0.73 0.64
The plants here are very beautiful in appearance 0.80 0.61
The plants here have a rich sense of hierarchy and three-dimensionality 0.62 0.53
The plant space design here is diverse, including at least two or more types such as open, semiopen, vertical, covered, and enclosed spaces 0.53 0.58
The number of plants here makes me feel comfortable 0.76 0.52
The trees, shrubs and ground cover plants are reasonably matched here 0.55 0.53
There are many types of plants 0.74 0.520.790.43
There are many trees here 0.80 0.49
There are many shrubs here 0.65 0.37
The proportion of flowers, fruit trees, and ornamental plants is high here 0.55 0.51
The plant density is high here 0.57 0.46
Measurement scale of restorative experiences (α = 0.85 KMO = 0.88)
This place helps me relax my mind0.64 0.460.870.52
Here, I feel liberated0.75 0.47
Being here allows me to set aside everyday concerns and find respite0.76 0.44
Here, I can temporarily escape the pressures of daily life and study0.70 0.44
Being here helps me reduce unnecessary attention expenditure0.69 0.47
There are attractive views or objects here 0.64 0.530.800.50
My attention is drawn to many interesting things here 0.78 0.52
I would like to learn more about this place 0.78 0.59
There are many places worth exploring and discovering here 0.79 0.57
I hope to spend more time enjoying the surroundings 0.72 0.56
This place is charming 0.56 0.47
It is boring here 0.69 0.550.790.48
There is not much worth looking at here 0.73 0.35
Here, I feel puzzled 0.81 0.30
There are too many things here to distract me 0.66 0.36
It is chaotic here 0.80 0.34
I feel a sense of belonging here 0.57 0.460.820.48
This place suits me well 0.75 0.47
I can do what I want here 0.81 0.46
I feel integrated with the surroundings here 0.76 0.57
I can find joy here 0.74 0.35
This place is dazzling to me 0.77 0.26
Measurement scale of health results (α = 0.76 KMO = 0.76)
The environment here helps me forget my worries0.70 0.480.770.46
The experience here makes my interpersonal relationships (including family relationships) more harmonious0.83 0.64
Engaging in activities here can help alleviate my psychological stress0.82 0.64
Coming here regularly has improved my health condition0.71 0.49
Measurement scale of stress (α = 0.88 KMO = 0.84)
Personal stress is high0.85 0.720.880.64
Economic pressure is high0.85 0.73
Family stress is high0.86 0.74
Work pressure is high0.87 0.75
Table 3. Results of Simple Mediation.
Table 3. Results of Simple Mediation.
PathsβSE95% CI
vegetation density → compatibility experience → perceived health benefits0.2110.0390.1380.291
landscape esthetics and functionality → compatibility experience → perceived health benefits0.3030.0520.2070.411
vegetation density → being-away experience → perceived health benefits0.1740.0450.0970.268
landscape esthetics and functionality → being-away experience → perceived health benefits0.2140.0510.1230.319
Note: SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval; β = standardized regression coefficient.
Table 4. Results of the moderated mediation of perceived health benefits.
Table 4. Results of the moderated mediation of perceived health benefits.
Index of Moderated MediationMediate VariableβSELLCIULCI
landscape esthetics and functionality × stressfascination experience−0.0260.019−0.0620.014
compatibility experience−0.0140.033−0.0840.048
incongruity experience−0.0080.011−0.0360.009
being-away experience−0.0180.029−0.0690.046
vegetation density × stressfascination experience−0.0090.019−0.0470.029
compatibility experience−0.0300.034−0.1030.033
incongruity experience−0.0080.010−0.0320.008
being-away experience−0.0420.028−0.0970.011
growth status × stressfascination experience0.0320.033−0.0370.092
compatibility experience0.0870.044−0.0060.165
incongruity experience−0.0100.011−0.0340.010
being-away experience−0.0040.038−0.0770.075
Note: SE = standard error; LLCI = the lowest value of the confidence interval; ULCI = the highest value of the confidence interval; β = standardized regression coefficient.
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Zhang, Y.; Fang, Y.; Wang, M.; Li, W. How Do Plant Landscapes Provide Health Benefits to Residents in Urban Green Spaces? Exploring the Role of Restorative Experiences. Forests 2024, 15, 1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081424

AMA Style

Zhang Y, Fang Y, Wang M, Li W. How Do Plant Landscapes Provide Health Benefits to Residents in Urban Green Spaces? Exploring the Role of Restorative Experiences. Forests. 2024; 15(8):1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081424

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Yuling, Yuting Fang, Mengqing Wang, and Wenjing Li. 2024. "How Do Plant Landscapes Provide Health Benefits to Residents in Urban Green Spaces? Exploring the Role of Restorative Experiences" Forests 15, no. 8: 1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081424

APA Style

Zhang, Y., Fang, Y., Wang, M., & Li, W. (2024). How Do Plant Landscapes Provide Health Benefits to Residents in Urban Green Spaces? Exploring the Role of Restorative Experiences. Forests, 15(8), 1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081424

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