Implementing Local Climate Change Adaptation Actions: The Role of Various Policy Instruments in Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) Woodlands, Northern Namibia
Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2022, 13(10), 1682; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101682
Submission received: 15 August 2022
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Revised: 4 October 2022
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Accepted: 5 October 2022
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Published: 13 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)
Abstract
:The impacts of climate change are severe in rural communities because of their proximity to forest ecosystems. Colophospermum mopane woodlands are vital in supporting the livelihood of the rural communities in the mopane woodlands while contributing to biodiversity conservation. There is limited research regarding implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation in rural areas of the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia. This study aims to investigate this subject from the mopane woodlands’ point of view to understand the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in the mopane woodlands. We conducted an online survey focusing on multiple stakeholders, experts in different sectors, and local communities. Major challenges such as a limited general understanding of climate change, its impacts, dry conditions of Namibia, and lack of funds for adaptation measures hamper the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands. Policymakers and relevant stakeholders should emphasize altering rural communities’ reliance on forest resources for their livelihood by improving their awareness of the impacts of climate change. Future research should evaluate climate change policy instruments’ framework and strategies in the context of forest ecosystems at the rural area level of Namibia.
1. Introduction
Climate change affects natural environments, including forest ecosystems and local communities. Rural communities are typically vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to their dependency on forest ecosystems for their livelihoods [1,2,3]. Implementing policy instruments minimizes the effects of climate change on rural communities.
With so much emphasis on climate change policy and regulatory framework development to enhance adaptation measures, it is still unclear how efficient the existing instruments are in rural communities [3]. The ambiguity of the effectiveness of existing policy instruments is prevalent, specifically in the context of forest ecosystems in rural communities. Although forest ecosystems play a crucial role in the livelihood of rural communities [4,5], most local communities in rural areas have a limited understanding of the impacts of climate change and adaptation measures [6,7]. Therefore, emphasis on implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation measures in rural communities requires special attention [8].
On a global level, the efforts to minimize the impacts of climate change have moved from understanding vulnerabilities to climate change adaptation [9]. In addition to the Paris Agreement [10], different countries implement different policy instruments for climate change at the national level [11]. The same need to build such policy activities upon cross-sector dialogue and actions has also been recognized in southern Africa [12]. In South Africa, for example, the local government has been developing the municipal climate protection program since 2004 [13].
The constitution of Namibia lays the foundation for all policies and legislation in Namibia and contains three vital environmental clauses relevant to the sustainable use of natural resources [14]. Therefore, climate change adaptation policy instruments are mainstreamed across multiple sectors and in concurrence with other related policy instruments [12]. Thus, Namibia’s National Climate Change Policy [15] is consistent with different policy instruments. There are various policy instruments for climate change adaptation in Namibia. The most significant ones include the National Climate Change Policy for Namibia, Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, Namibia National Forest Policy, Forestry Strategic Plan, the Forest Act, National Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development Policy, and the Communal Land Reform Act contribute to climate change adaptation [14].
Studying the use of different policy tools to adapt and mitigate climate change is a critical research gap [16]. Therefore, the phenomena of climate change and forest ecosystem services have attracted the attention of researchers and scholars all around the world [3,16] to southern Africa [17] and Namibia [18,19]. However, significant research gaps still exist regarding the implementation of policy instruments and their impacts on adaptation in the context of forest ecosystem services in rural communities in the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
While a considerable amount of literature focuses on climate change adaptation [18,20], the implementation policy instruments for adaptation to climate change, their effectiveness, and the challenges faced implementing them in rural communities of the mopane woodlands remain under-researched and misunderstood. Implementing policy instruments in rural communities, especially in the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia, are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change [21]. Furthermore, forest ecosystems in this area have become degraded due to the dense population, poor vegetation cover [22], and low and erratic rainfall patterns [23,24]. In addition, forest ecosystems in the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia, where tree species of high socio-economic value, such as Colophospermum mopane (Kirk ex Benth.) Kirk ex J.Léonard, commonly known as mopane, are threatened by the demands from local communities and by the ever-changing harsh climatic conditions, are no exception [25].
Mopane woodlands, which provide multiple forest services, including socio-economic benefits, are essential to the livelihoods of rural communities in northern Namibia [26]. Effectively implementing climate change adaptation actions can be a remedy against the degrading utilization of mopane woodlands [27]. There is little scientific work about the impacts of climate change and policy instruments in the context of forest ecosystems in Namibia. Hence, although mopane woodlands are valuable in terms of socio-economic values and biodiversity, there is little emphasis on implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands in northern Namibia. Consequently, there is no clear evidence about the extent of the implementation of policy instruments in mopane woodlands. This situation might affect the adequacy of management strategies and the adequacy of the existing policy instruments for climate change adaptation in the mopane woodlands. Bridging this gap would contribute to formulating a practical framework and approach for effectively implementing adaptation policy instruments in the highly vulnerable yet socio-economically valuable mopane woodlands.
The paper aims to investigate the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation actions in mopane woodlands. Our study focuses on the knowledge, effectiveness, and challenges of implementing various policy instruments for climate change adaptation and, finally, possible improvement proposals for policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
Namibia consists of fourteen (14) political regions [28]. We focused on the Omusati and Kunene regions (Figure 1). These regions also form part of the Baikiaea-mopane woodlands of southern Africa and represent areas with the highest distribution of C. mopane species in Namibia, with the Omusati region having the highest concentration of the species among the two [29]. The species is a valuable natural resource and an income source for the local inhabitants [30]. It is mainly used for poles, fuelwood, droppers, rafters, and bark rope by local communities in the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia [31].
Due to the quality wood of C. mopane, mopane woodlands are disappearing despite their role in providing forest ecosystem services such as being crucial to livelihoods, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity [26]. Increases in local populations have increased tree harvesting in the area over the years.
Eight countries in southern Africa are reported to have C. mopane vegetation [31]. C. mopane is predominately found in areas with little to moderate rainfall, hot temperatures, low altitudes, and various soil types [31]. As a result, the C. mopane savanna extends over a large area, reaching as far south as Brandberg mountain, Namibia’s highest point, between southwestern Angola and Namibia [5,32]. Fine-grained sand and clay-loam sites made of basalt, alluvial material, and lime are ideal for C. mopane [31]. Hence, C. mopane has mitigative and adaptation values to the impacts of climate change.
Covering about 17% of the total area and constituting 13% of the total population of Namibia, these two regions are situated in the north-central geographical zones of Namibia [33]. The study area is semi-arid and characterized by high temperatures ranging from 5–37 °C, whereas the annual average rainfall is about 350–500 mm between November and April [34]. Due to its dry climatic conditions, the area is considered prone to severe effects of climate. Communities in the northern and northeastern parts of the country have experienced more severe flooding, which has caused significant hardship to local communities [35].
Most of Namibia’s population, approximately 70%, lives in rural areas that depend heavily on forest ecosystems [35]. These rural areas, which are frequently underdeveloped and marginalized, are more severely affected by the effects of climate change [36]. Most of the Omusati and Kunene residents live in rural areas. As a result, forest ecosystems play a crucial role in supporting the livelihood of the local communities in these two regions [4,37]. Agricultural activities at a subsistence level are customary in these regions [37,38].
2.2. Survey
We collected data using a semi-structured online questionnaire (Survio 2022 version, see Appendix A). Given the fact that Namibia is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, especially in the rural communities [23], all Namibians, especially senior managers, policymakers, and decision-makers across all sectors, are commissioned to assume responsibility for adaptation given the forecast that weather conditions will worsen over the coming decades [39].
Therefore, we focused on eight of the main cross-sectoral policy instruments that are directly integrated into the protection and conservation of forest ecosystems in Namibia, namely the National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia, Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, National Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development Policy, Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975, the Communal Land Reform Act, Namibia National Forest Policy, Forestry Strategic Plan, and the Forest Act. These policy instruments systematically complement climate adaptation activities within Namibia’s National Policy on Climate Change framework and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [40].
Given that the existing policy instruments are executed at the national level, we administered the semi-structured questionnaire to experts at different ranks representing professions with varying experience levels in the environmental sciences and natural resources management, including forestry and climate change. This included experts from public, private, and academic institutions. The cross-sectoral experts were involved based on their expertise and experiences in policy instruments, rural community development programs, research, and forest resources management.
Since we delimited our study to rural communities within mopane woodlands, particularly the Omusati and Kunene regions, we also tried to involve local communities from these two regions. Local communities depend on mopane woodlands for their livelihoods [4,5]. Local communities are also involved in implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation, both directly and indirectly. The implementation of policy instruments also affects their livelihoods to some extent. Hence, we involved them in our study to give their views and experience concerning implementing various policy instruments in mopane woodlands.
Due to the limited understanding of climate change [20], we targeted 150 respondents representing private, public, academia, research, and local community members in the Omusati and Kunene Regions. We achieved a response rate of 128, which translates to 85.3%. The most significantly represented institution was public (n = 50, 39.2%), followed by the private (n = 31, 24.5%) and academia and research (n = 26, 20.3%). There were few local community members (n = 15, 11.9%) due to their low literacy level and poor internet access. In addition, other institutions, such as students and Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), comprised (n = 5) 4.1% of the respondents.
For the local communities, we limited the survey to the literate members of the community. Another reason for selecting the literate local community members was that most illiterate local community members do not comprehensively understand the subject of climate change, policy instruments, and forest ecosystem services.
For public institutions, we focused on the top, middle, and lower management staff of the Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and Tourism (MEFT) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Water, and Land Reform (MAWRL). Regional and global public institutions operating in Namibia, such as the Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit/the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ), and the Environmental Investment Fund (EIF) were also involved.
In the case of private institutions, we focused on the Namibia Nature Foundation (NNF), the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN), the Namibian Association of Community Based Natural Resource Management (NACSO), Namibia Scientific Society, and the Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC). Such private institutions are actively involved in managing and conserving natural environments, including forest ecosystems in Namibia. For academic institutions, we focused on the teaching and research staff representing fields such as natural resources management, forestry, and environmental sciences at the Namibia University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), the University of Namibia (UNAM), and the International University of Management (IUM).
Collected data were entered, coded, cleaned, and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social sciences (IBM SPSS, version 28; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) [41] (Appendix B). Qualitative data were coded according to relevant themes using the Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) approach. TCA is a method of presenting qualitative data descriptively [42]. This tool is used to categorize and exhibit the data’s narrator themes or data patterns. The approach is less suitable for investigating unique meanings or experiences from a particular person or data item because it is programmed to look for shared or common meanings [43].
3. Results
3.1. Level of Education
The level of education plays a vital role in the knowledge and implementation of adaptation actions for climate change [44]. Most of the respondents across different sectors were educated (Figure 3).
Most of the respondents were in possession of bachelor’s degrees (51.6%). In addition to the bachelor’s degree, there were many respondents with diplomas (16.4%) compared to master’s degrees which constituted 14.8% of all the respondents. Although the level of education assessed was not limited to the field of climate and forestry, it is believed that general education can be a powerful tool in enabling effective adaptation to climate change [44].
The implementation of policy instruments is expected to be more effective where communities are educated. Educated communities can easily understand the concept of policy instruments and their implementation and spearhead adaptation actions among uneducated local communities.
3.2. Knowledge of Policy Instruments for Climate Change
The level of general and scientific knowledge about various policy instruments for climate change adaptation among climate change experts, stakeholders, and local communities plays an essential role in implementing its policy and associated policy instruments [45]. In this context, the level of knowledge about the various policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands is essential in determining their effectiveness. Our results revealed the level of understanding of the respondents about implementing multiple policy instruments as interventions made in mopane woodlands to promote adaptation (Figure 4).
Although most of the respondents in our study were experts, the results show that the level of knowledge about climate change and policy instruments ranged from good knowledge (n = 48, 37%) to no knowledge at all (n = 19, 15%). In addition to the category of respondents who indicated that they had good knowledge about climate change and associated policy instruments, another group of respondents in the same measure showed that they had limited knowledge (n = 48, 37%). About 9% (n = 11) of the respondents had excellent knowledge. Only relatively few respondents had an experience in climate change and implementing policy instruments (n = 3, 2%).
It is clear from the results that the implementation of climate change actions in the mopane woodlands is not fully understood among different stakeholders. The results coincide with [20], who highlighted that limited knowledge of climate change adaptation is one of the main limiting factors in the effectiveness of adaptation actions—in Namibia. Limited knowledge of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands could be attributed to many factors that need to be identified and addressed appropriately. The issue of limited knowledge about climate change and associated policy instruments is worse in rural areas where most residents are illiterate or do not have access to media [6]. Thus, this situation could hamper the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation [7,8].
3.3. The Implementation of Policy Instruments
Our survey results on implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation in the mopane woodlands provide a good picture of the various policy instruments associated with climate change adaptation (Table 1).
Our survey results show that most of the policy instruments were on a scale ranging from active to very active. This implies that multiple policy instruments for climate change adaptation are active within the Namibia National Forest Policy, rated the most active instrument (n = 51, 40%), followed by the Communal Land Reform Act (n = 47, 37%).
Although the National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia is the central catalyst for adaptation measures, it was rated among the least active instruments (n = 32, 25%) alongside Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (n = 27, 21%). This situation could be attributed to various factors, including a lack of communication [17], a lack of understanding of climate, and the exclusion of rural communities [7].
3.4. Effectiveness of the Policy Instruments
Our results further revealed the effectiveness of different policy instruments for climate change adaptation (Table 2). The results indicate that all the listed policy instruments rated effective to very effective. We discovered that the Communal Land Reform Act was the most effective policy instrument (n = 54, 42%), followed by the Forest Act (n = 51, 40%).
The Communal Land Reform Act is crucial for determining land use in rural areas. Forestry and agricultural activities in rural communities of Namibia must comply with the Communal Land Reform Act. The Communal Land Reform Act determines rural forestry ownership (private, communal, and state). Therefore, it plays a significant role in climate change adaptation in the mopane woodlands.
Furthermore, Namibia National Forest Policy (n = 35, 27%) and Forestry Strategic Plan (n = 35, 27%) were identified among the least effective policy instruments. Mopane woodlands consist of sparsely distributed vegetation mixed with mopane shrublands (Figure 1). Local communities predominantly practice agriculture for subsistence purposes, which has led to desertification in the area. These and possibly more factors have influenced the effectiveness of forestry legislative activities in the mopane woodlands.
3.5. Implementation Strategies
Strategies are essential for implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation actions in mopane woodlands. Our results show the main implementation strategies for adaptation policy instruments (Table 3).
Since climate change is a cross-cutting phenomenon, the implementation strategies that our survey discovered cover various sectors but predominantly stem from the forestry and agriculture sectors. Our results reveal that awareness creation was the most effective strategy (n = 45, 35%), followed by research, development, and innovation (n = 39, 31%) and promoting the use of alternative building materials (n = 36, 28%). Promoting tree planting (n = 29, 23%) and reducing reliance on firewood as a source of energy (n = 21, 16%) were listed among the least effective strategy for policy instruments for climate change adaptation. The most ineffective strategies included reducing reliance on firewood for energy (n = 53, 41%) and minimizing deforestation (n = 38, 28%).
3.6. Challenges
Implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation in the mopane woodlands is faced with several challenges. Our results show some of our main challenges (Table 4).
Our results showed that the most significant challenges included high demands for land for agricultural practices (n = 41, 32%) and a lack of funds for climate change adaptation measures (n = 40, 31%). We further discovered limited research, poor information dissemination (n = 38, 30%), and inadequate law enforcement officials due to the low government budget (n = 38, 30%) among the main challenges. In addition, insufficient awareness creation in rural communities (n = 34, 27%) and dry climatic conditions (n = 37, 29%) were listed among the significant challenges in implementing climate change adaptation measures in the mopane woodlands.
We noted that most of the challenges in this study are associated with administrative aspects of climate change policy instruments and forest ecosystems. Only dry conditions can be classified as a natural challenge that can be difficult to control. Therefore, there are plenty of opportunities to improve the implementation and effectiveness of various policy instruments to maximize their potential.
3.7. Possible Improvements
Regarding the status of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in the context of forest ecosystems, opportunities, and challenges faced, our results offer possible improvements to enhance the framework for such various instruments (Figure 5).
The most significant recommended improvement for climate change policy instruments was awareness creation (n = 55, 43%), followed by funds for adaptation and mitigation measures (n = 17, 14%), rural community participatory approach (n = 9, 7%), and research and development (n = 9, 7%). The least recommended strategies included minimized land clearing for agricultural practices (n = 3, 2%), improved implementation (n = 3, 2%), and monitoring and evaluation of the policy instruments (n = 1, 1%).
From the recommendations by our respondents, we can conclude that there are plenty of opportunities for integrated policy instruments to effectively contribute to climate change adaptation in rural communities of the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia. However, more emphasis should be on awareness creation about climate change, its impacts, and existing policy instruments. It is worth highlighting that awareness creation and information dissemination are enormous challenges (Table 4) that require funding. Thus, our respondents recommended that funding for climate change policy instruments needs improvement. In view of this, it was suggested that research and development need improvement.
The issue of climate change is cross-cutting. Therefore, improving policy instruments will benefit all affected sectors. We discovered that the status of the implementation of policy instruments, their collective effectiveness, challenges, and recommended improvements are interlinked.
4. Discussion
Although our results were based on the perception of multiple experts representing various sectors in addition to the local communities, it is concerning that most of them revealed a lack of knowledge about climate change (Figure 4) and its existing integrated policy instruments at the rural and national levels. Most of the respondents were educated with a bachelor’s degree taking dominance in terms of the level of education. Even though not all the experts, stakeholders, and local communities have qualifications in forestry and climate change, their education level can be a powerful tool to implement climate change actions in mopane woodlands effectively.
Although rural communities in the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia depend on forest resources for their livelihood, escalating desertification has led to the dominance of agricultural practices, mainly subsistence. As a result, the Communal Land Reform Act, which administers land tenure, was rated the most effective policy instrument for climate change adaptation (Table 2) in Northern Namibia’s mopane woodlands. In addition, C. mopane is the most valuable in terms of utilization by local communities in the mopane woodlands [5]. Therefore, the Forest Act is important in governing the management and utilization of forest resources. In this case, the Forest Act, in alignment with principles for climate change adaptation, regulates access to forest resources, management of forest ecosystems, and utilization of forest resources in the mopane woodlands. As a result, it was identified among the most effective instruments in promoting climate change adaptation in C. mopane woodlands.
The Namibia National Forest Policy was rated the most active instrument along with the Communal Land Reform Act. Rural communities in the mopane woodlands depend on forest ecosystems and agriculture. Thus, these two policy instruments are critical in climate change adaptation in this area. However, Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan was the only policy instrument rated inactive. Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan is an implementation strategy for the National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia that was active between 2013–2020 [46].
Due to its natural ability to adapt to dry conditions, C. mopane is a tree species with high values for both socio-economic and biodiversity [30,31]. Therefore, the mopane woodlands play a critical role in carbon sequestration, supporting livelihood for rural communities, biodiversity, soil conservation, and forest ecosystem services in general [47]. However, mopane woodlands are constantly threatened by high demands for land for agriculture by local communities. Therefore, policy instruments for climate change adaptation in this area are essential. However, for the policy instruments to be effective in the mopane woodlands, various challenges, including a lack of communication [17], a lack of understanding/awareness of climate change, and exclusion of the rural communities from policy instrument formulation [7], need to be addressed.
Implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation faces various challenges, ranging from natural conditions to legislation and human activities. Natural conditions, arid and erratic conditions, particularly in the mopane woodlands [34,48,49], influence vegetation cover and, consequently, forest ecosystems in the area. Thus, this situation has influenced the effectiveness of policy instruments in the area.
Although there are various policy instruments for adaptation to climate change, policymakers, implementation institutions, and stakeholders do not appear to feel the urgency to prioritize policy instruments in the less forested mopane woodlands. However, it is essential to point out that this attitude is the critical driver of the lack of awareness of climate change and its policy instruments for adaptation in rural areas. Our results agree with previous research that local communities have a limited understanding of the phenomenon in rural areas [6,7]. This situation is concerning because local communities in rural areas are the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and will continue to degrade forest ecosystems for their livelihood.
5. Conclusions
A general understanding of the impacts of climate change is that they are severe in rural communities [45] because local communities live close to forest ecosystems [4,5]. In other words, they depend on forest resources for their livelihood. At the same time, rural communities tend to exert enormous pressure on forest ecosystems, which eventually affects forest ecosystem services and their role in climate change mitigation and adaptation, for example, carbon sequestration. Thus, ensuring the effectiveness of policy instruments for climate change in rural communities is essential in building resilience and adaptation to the impacts of climate change in these vulnerable communities. However, this subject did not receive sufficient attention from research in various regions, including southern Africa, especially in the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
In the present study, we conclude that the limited understanding of climate change, its impacts, dry conditions, and lack of funds for adaptation measures are significant challenges hampering policy instruments for adaptation. As highlighted earlier, C. mopane ecosystems support livelihood for the rural communities in mopane woodlands in northern Namibia while contributing to biodiversity conservation. However, there is a concern that implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation will be challenging for local communities in the mopane woodlands due to the lack of general knowledge about climate change. Therefore, an emphasis on altering their reliance on forest resources for their livelihood by improving their awareness of the impacts of climate change is essential.
Finally, our study discovered that there are many opportunities to strengthen policy instruments for climate change adaptation in the rural communities of Namibia. However, there is a need for awareness creation for local communities and multiple stakeholders in implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation actions in mopane woodlands. It is also essential to incorporate climate change topics in primary education to equip future generations with the necessary knowledge of climate change adaptation actions.
Further research could explore adaptation activities at the local level that are not visible through national policies and how they can be improved. Finally, our study identifies a need for future research, including physiological characteristics of the C. mopane in terms of adaptation and mitigation to climate change, as well as the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in promoting specific forest ecosystem services in mopane woodlands.
Limitations and Prospects for Future Research
One of the main obstacles in researching policy instruments for climate change adaptation in forest ecosystems in rural communities is the lack of data. As a result, our study employed an online survey involving multiple players and stakeholders. However, challenges such as the limited understanding of climate change among local communities in the study area and their limited access to the internet influenced their involvement in the survey. In other words, only local community members who have access to the internet were able to participate in this study. Although implementing policy instruments is a national approach, we limited our study to the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia, emphasizing the Omusati and Kunene regions due to the higher concentration of C. mopane in this area than elsewhere in the country.
Additionally, most of our respondents revealed a limited understanding of implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation. This situation has influenced their subsequent answers in the survey. Therefore, we recommend future research to evaluate the framework, strategies, effectiveness, and challenges faced in implementing the National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia, which is the catalyst for climate change adaptation and mitigation on the national level in the context of forest ecosystems.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization A.N. and M.H.; methodology, A.N.; software, A.N.; validation, M.H.; formal analysis, A.N.; investigation, A.N. and M.H.; resources, A.N. and M.H.; data curation, A.N.; writing—original draft preparation, A.N.; writing—review and editing, A.N.; visualization, A.N.; supervision, M.H.; project administration, M.H.; funding acquisition, M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by the Operational Program Research, Development, and Education, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic, grant no. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000803.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical conduct of the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism, Namibia, and approved by the Directorate of Forestry of the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism dated 18 August 2022.
Informed Consent Statement
Written informed consent has been obtained from the Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and Tourism of Namibia to publish this paper.
Data Availability Statement
All data relevant to the study are included in the article.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the approval of the Ministry of Environment, Forestry, and Tourism (MEFT) of Namibiato conduct this research. We also want to thank individual experts in climate change, policy instruments, and environmental sciences representing public, private, academic institutions, NGOs, and local communities from the Omusati and Kunene regions who participated in this study. Finally, we are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive reviews.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Appendix A
SURVEY ITEMS
Appendix B
DATA
Table A1.
Educational level.
| Educational Level | Frequency (n) | Percentage (%) | Valid Percentage (%) | Cumulative Percent (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grade 12 | 14 | 9.2 | 10.9 | 10.9 |
| Certificate | 2 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 12.5 |
| Diploma | 21 | 13.8 | 16.4 | 28.9 |
| Bachelor’s degree | 66 | 43.4 | 51.6 | 80.5 |
| Master’s degree | 19 | 12.5 | 14.8 | 95.3 |
| Doctoral degree | 6 | 3.9 | 4.7 | 100 |
| Total | 128 | 84.2 | 100 |
Table A2.
Knowledge about climate change policy instruments.
| Knowledge about Climate Change Policy Instruments | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Experienced | 3 | 2 |
| Excellent knowledge | 11 | 9 |
| Good knowledge | 48 | 38 |
| Limited knowledge | 47 | 37 |
| No knowledge | 19 | 15 |
| TOTAL | 128 | 100 |
Table A3.
The implementation of policy instruments.
| Policy Instruments | Extremely Inactive | Very Inactive | Inactive | Not Sure | Active | Very Active | Extremely Active | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan | 4 (3.1%) | 11 (8.6%) | 29 (22.7%) | 50 (39.1%) | 27 (21.1%) | 6 (4.7%) | 1 (0.8%) | 128 (100) |
| National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia | 5 (3.9%) | 7 (5.5%) | 20 (15.6%) | 51 (39.8%) | 32 (25.0%) | 10 (7.8%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
| National Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development Policy | 5 (3.9%) | 9 (7.0%) | 22 (17.2%) | 38 (29.7%) | 45 (35.2%) | 8 (6.3%) | 1 (0.8%) | 128 (100) |
| The Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975 | 4 (3.1%) | 7 (5.5%) | 8 (6.3%) | 46 (35.9%) | 44 (34.4%) | 15 (11.7%) | 4 (3.1%) | 128 (100) |
| The Communal Land Reform Act | 3 (2.3%) | 7 (5.5%) | 14 (10.9%) | 36 (28.1%) | 47 (36.7%) | 18 (14.1%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
| Namibia National Forest Policy | 2 (1.6%) | 8 (6.3%) | 10 (7.8%) | 36 (28.1%) | 51 (39.8%) | 17 (13.3%) | 4 (3.1%) | 128 (100) |
| Forestry Strategic Plan | 4 (3.1%) | 5 (3.9%) | 15 (11.7%) | 57 (44.5%) | 36 (28.1%) | 7 (5.5%) | 4 (3.1%) | 128 (100) |
| The Forest Act | 2 (1.6%) | 5 (3.9%) | 9 (7.0%) | 43 (33.6%) | 45 (35.2%) | 21 (16.4%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
Table A4.
Effectiveness of the policy instruments.
| Policy Instruments | Extremely Ineffective | Very Ineffective | Ineffective | Not Sure | Effective | Very Effective | Extremely Effective | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan | 4 (3.1%) | 5 (3.9%) | 23 (18.0%) | 51 (39.8%) | 37 (28.9%) | 5 (3.9%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
| National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia | 4 (3.1%) | 4 (3.1%) | 20 (15.6%) | 49 (38.3%) | 41 (32.0%) | 9 (7.0%) | 1 (0.8%) | 128 (100) |
| National Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development Policy | 4 (3.1%) | 3 (2.3%) | 24 (18.8%) | 39 (30.5%) | 43 (33.6%) | 10 (7.8%) | 5 (3.9%) | 128 (100) |
| The Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975 | 4 (3.1%) | 5 (3.9%) | 14 (10.9%) | 41 (32.0%) | 44 (34.4%) | 16 (12.5%) | 4 (3.1%) | 128 (100) |
| The Communal Land Reform Act | 3 (2.3%) | 2 (1.6%) | 17 (13.3%) | 36 (28.1%) | 54 (42.2%) | 14 (10.9%) | 2 (1.6%) | 128 (100) |
| Namibia National Forest Policy | 3 (2.3%) | 2 (1.6%) | 14 (10.9%) | 53 (41.4%) | 35 (27.3%) | 18 (14.1%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
| Forestry Strategic Plan | 4 (3.1%) | 4 (3.1%) | 14 (10.9%) | 58 (45.3%) | 36 (28.1%) | 10 (7.8%) | 2 (1.6%) | 128 (100) |
| The Forest Act | 4 (3.1%) | 2 (1.6%) | 11 (8.6%) | 45 (35.2%) | 51 (39.8%) | 13 (10.2%) | 2 (1.6%) | 128 (100) |
Table A5.
Implementation strategies.
| Strategies | Extremely Ineffective | Very Ineffective | Ineffective | Not Sure | Effective | Very Effective | Extremely Effective | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimizing deforestation | 5 (3.9%) | 8 (6.3%) | 38 (29.7%) | 35 (27.3%) | 31 (24.2%) | 8 (6.3%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
| Promoting tree planting | 4 (3.1%) | 8 (6.3%) | 31 (24.2%) | 33 (25.8%) | 29 (22.7%) | 17 (13.3% | 6 (4.7%) | 128 (100) |
| Promoting agroforestry | 4 (3.1%) | 5 (3.9%) | 36 (28.1%) | 36 (28.1%) | 35 (27.3%) | 8 (6.3%) | 4 (3.1%) | 128 (100) |
| Reducing reliance on firewood as a source of energy | 10 (7.8%) | 11 (8.6%) | 53 (41.4%) | 23 (18.0%) | 21 (16.4%) | 7 (5.5%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
| Promoting alternative building materials | 8 (6.3%) | 3 (2.3%) | 30 (23.4%) | 32 (25.0%) | 36 (28.1%) | 16 (12.5%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
| Awareness creation in climate change and forest ecosystem services | 6 (4.7%) | 7 (5.5%) | 22 (17.2%) | 32 (25.0%) | 45 (35.2%) | 12 (9.4%) | 4 (3.1%) | 128 (100) |
| Research, development, and innovation | 5 (3.9%) | 2 (1.6%) | 36 (28.1%) | 35 (27.3%) | 39 (30.5%) | 8 (6.3%) | 3 (2.3%) | 128 (100) |
Table A6.
Challenges.
| Challenges | Extremely Insignificant | Very Insignificant | Insignificant | Not Sure | Significant | Very Significant | Extremely Significant | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Harsh and dry climatic conditions | 4 (3.1%) | 5 (3.9%) | 10 (7.8%) | 36 (28.1%) | 37 (28.9%) | 28 (21.9%) | 8 (6.3%) | 128 (100) |
| High unemployment rates and poverty exert pressure on forest ecosystems | 5 (3.9%) | 8 (6.3%) | 12 (9.4%) | 18 (14.1%) | 28 (21.9%) | 34 (26.6%) | 23 (18.0%) | 128 (100) |
| High demands for grazing land | 4 (3.1%) | 4 (3.1%) | 5 (3.9%) | 19 (14.8%) | 41 (32.0%) | 29 (22.7%) | 26 (20.3%) | 128 (100) |
| Low awareness about the impacts of climate change among local communities | 5 (3.9%) | 5 (3.9%) | 15 (11.7%) | 31 (24.2%) | 34 (26.6%) | 26 (20.3%) | 12 (9.4%) | 128 (100) |
| Limited research and poor information dissemination | 5 (3.9%) | 6 (4.7%) | 9 (7.0%) | 26 (20.3%) | 30 (23.4%) | 38 (29.7%) | 14 (10.9%) | 128 (100) |
| Lack of funds for climate change mitigation and adaptation measures | 9 (7.0%) | 6 (4.7%) | 4 (3.1%) | 22 (17.2%) | 30 (23.4%) | 40 (31.3%) | 17 (13.3%) | 128 (100) |
| Limited law enforcement officials due to low government budget | 6 (4.7%) | 3 (2.3%) | 15 (11.7%) | 22 (17.2%) | 23 (18.0%) | 38 (29.7%) | 21 (16.4%) | 128 (100) |
Table A7.
Possible improvements.
| Recommendations | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Awareness creation & public education | 80 | 43% |
| Fund for adaptation & mitigation | 26 | 14% |
| Rural communities’ participatory approach | 13 | 7% |
| Research & development | 13 | 7% |
| Active stakeholders’ participation | 11 | 6% |
| Review of policy instruments | 8 | 4% |
| Alternative building materials | 8 | 4% |
| Law enforcement | 7 | 4% |
| Afforestation & reforestation | 6 | 3% |
| Climate change in basic education | 5 | 3% |
| Minimize land clearing for agriculture | 3 | 2% |
| Improve implementation | 3 | 2% |
| Monitoring & evaluation | 2 | 1% |
| Total | 185 | 100% |
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Figure 1.
The location of the Omusati and Kunene regions on the map of Namibia and the distribution of mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
Figure 1.
The location of the Omusati and Kunene regions on the map of Namibia and the distribution of mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
Figure 2.
The procedure flow of the TCA that was performed for qualitative data.
Figure 3.
Level of education ranging from a grade 12 to a doctoral degree among the respondents from various sectors.
Figure 3.
Level of education ranging from a grade 12 to a doctoral degree among the respondents from various sectors.
Figure 4.
Knowledge of implementing various policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands.
Figure 4.
Knowledge of implementing various policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands.
Figure 5.
Possible improvements for policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands according to stakeholders from various sectors.
Figure 5.
Possible improvements for policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands according to stakeholders from various sectors.
Table 1.
The rating of how active the implementation of various policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
Table 1.
The rating of how active the implementation of various policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
| Policy Instruments | Extremely Inactive | Very Inactive | Inactive | Not Sure | Active | Very Active | Extremely Active | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan | 4 (3%) | 11 (9%) | 29 (23%) | 50 (39%) | 27 (21%) | 6 (5%) | 1 (1%) | 128 (100) |
| National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia | 5 (4%) | 7 (6%) | 20 (16%) | 51 (38%) | 32 (25%) | 10 (8%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| National Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development Policy | 5 (4%) | 9 (7%) | 22 (17%) | 38 (30%) | 45 (35%) | 8 (6%) | 1 (1%) | 128 (100) |
| The Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975 | 4 (3%) | 7 (6%) | 8 (6%) | 46 (36%) | 44 (34%) | 15 (12%) | 4 (3%) | 128 (100) |
| The Communal Land Reform Act | 3 (2%) | 7 (6%) | 14 (11%) | 36 (28%) | 47 (37%) | 18 (14%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| Namibia National Forest Policy | 2 (2%) | 8 (6%) | 10 (8%) | 36 (28%) | 51 (40%) | 17 (13%) | 4 (3%) | 128 (100) |
| Forestry Strategic Plan | 4 (3%) | 5 (4%) | 15 (12%) | 57 (45%) | 36 (28%) | 7 (6%) | 4 (3%) | 128 (100) |
| The Forest Act | 2 (2%) | 5 (4%) | 9 (7%) | 43 (34%) | 45 (35%) | 21 (16%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
Table 2.
The effectiveness of the policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
Table 2.
The effectiveness of the policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
| Policy Instruments | Extremely Ineffective | Very Ineffective | Ineffective | Not sure | Effective | Very Effective | Extremely Effective | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Namibia’s Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan | 4 (3%) | 5 (4%) | 23 (18%) | 51 (40%) | 37 (29%) | 5 (4%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia | 4 (3%) | 4 (3%) | 20 (16%) | 49 (38%) | 41 (32%) | 9 (7%) | 1 (1%) | 128 (100) |
| National Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development Policy | 4 (3.1%) | 3 (2%) | 24 (19%) | 39 (31%) | 43 (34%) | 10 (8%) | 5 (4%) | 128 (100) |
| The Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 4 of 1975 | 4 (3%) | 5 (4%) | 14 (11%) | 41 (32%) | 44 (34%) | 16 (13%) | 4 (3%) | 128 (100) |
| The Communal Land Reform Act | 3 (2%) | 2 (2%) | 17 (13%) | 36 (28%) | 54 (42%) | 14 (11%) | 2 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| Namibia National Forest Policy | 3 (2.3%) | 2 (2%) | 14 (11%) | 53 (41%) | 35 (27%) | 18 (14%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| Forestry Strategic Plan | 4 (3%) | 4 (3%) | 14 (11%) | 58 (45%) | 36 (28%) | 10 (8%) | 2 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| The Forest Act | 4 (3%) | 2 (2%) | 11 (9%) | 45 (35%) | 51 (40%) | 13 (10%) | 2 (2%) | 128 (100) |
Table 3.
Implementation strategies for policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
Table 3.
Implementation strategies for policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands in northern Namibia.
| Extremely Ineffective | Extremely Ineffective | Very Ineffective | Ineffective | Not Sure | Effective | Very Effective | Extremely Effective | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimizing deforestation | 5 (4%) | 8 (6%) | 38 (28%) | 35 (27%) | 31 (24%) | 8 (6%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| Promoting tree planting | 4 (3%) | 8 (6%) | 31 (24%) | 33 (26%) | 29 (23%) | 17 (13%) | 6 (5%) | 128 (100) |
| Promoting agroforestry | 4 (3%) | 5 (4%) | 36 (28%) | 36 (28%) | 35 (27%) | 8 (6%) | 4 (3%) | 128 (100) |
| Reducing reliance on firewood for energy | 10 (8%) | 11 (9%) | 53 (41%) | 23 (18%) | 21 (16%) | 7 (6%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| Promoting the use of alternative building materials | 8 (6%) | 3 (2%) | 30 (23%) | 32 (25%) | 36 (28%) | 16 (13%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
| Awareness creation in climate change and forest ecosystem services | 6 (5%) | 7 (6%) | 22 (17%) | 32 (25%) | 45 (35%) | 12 (9%) | 4 (3%) | 128 (100) |
| Research, development, and innovation | 5 (4%) | 2 (2%) | 36 (28%) | 35 (27%) | 39 (31%) | 8 (6%) | 3 (2%) | 128 (100) |
Table 4.
Challenges facing the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodland in northern Namibia.
Table 4.
Challenges facing the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodland in northern Namibia.
| Challenges | Extremely Insignificant | Very Insignificant | Insignificant | Not Sure | Significant | Very Significant | Extremely Significant | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry climatic conditions | 4 (3%) | 5 (4%) | 10 (8%) | 36 (28%) | 37 (29%) | 28 (22%) | 8 (6%) | 128 (100) |
| High unemployment rates and poverty exert pressure on forest ecosystems | 5 (4%) | 8 (6%) | 12 (10%) | 18 (14%) | 28 (22%) | 34 (27%) | 23 (18%) | 128 (100) |
| High demands for land for agricultural practices | 4 (3%) | 4 (3%) | 5 (4%) | 19 (15%) | 41 (32%) | 29 (23%) | 26 (20%) | 128 (100) |
| Inadequate awareness creation in rural communities | 5 (4%) | 5 (4%) | 15 (12%) | 31 (24%) | 34 (27%) | 26 (20%) | 12 (10%) | 128 (100) |
| Limited research and poor information dissemination | 5 (4%) | 6 (5%) | 9 (7%) | 26 (20%) | 30 (23%) | 38 (30%) | 14 (11%) | 128 (100) |
| Lack of funds for climate change adaptation measures | 9 (7%) | 6 (5%) | 4 (3%) | 22 (17%) | 30 (23%) | 40 (31%) | 17 (13%) | 128 (100) |
| Inadequate law enforcement officials due to low government budget | 6 (5%) | 3 (2%) | 15 (12%) | 22 (17%) | 23 (18%) | 38 (30%) | 21 (16%) | 128 (100) |
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Nikodemus, A.; Hájek, M. Implementing Local Climate Change Adaptation Actions: The Role of Various Policy Instruments in Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) Woodlands, Northern Namibia. Forests 2022, 13, 1682. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101682
AMA Style
Nikodemus A, Hájek M. Implementing Local Climate Change Adaptation Actions: The Role of Various Policy Instruments in Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) Woodlands, Northern Namibia. Forests. 2022; 13(10):1682. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101682
Chicago/Turabian StyleNikodemus, Andreas, and Miroslav Hájek. 2022. "Implementing Local Climate Change Adaptation Actions: The Role of Various Policy Instruments in Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) Woodlands, Northern Namibia" Forests 13, no. 10: 1682. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101682
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