1. Introduction
The epoxy resin insulating system is widely used in high voltage insulators, transformers, cable terminations, bushings, power apparatus and so on. Epoxy resin-based nanocomposites used as a new generation of dielectric materials in power equipment have been extensively researched for more than ten years, and many modified physical properties have been obtained and analyzed from different aspects. However, we still need more detailed data and analysis to enrich the theoretical system of epoxy resin-based nanocomposites for a lot of fundamental questions have not been answered.
Glass transition temperature (
Tg) of an epoxy resin-based nanocomposite, the most basic parameter, is determined by the preparation process and surface modification of the doping nanoparticles. Based on reported results, the introduction of silane coupling agents-modified nano-SiO
2 decrease the
Tg of epoxy resin according to the loss factor of mechanical modulus [
1]. Similar results of decreased
Tg have been reported about nano-Al
2O
3 [
2,
3,
4,
5], nano-TiO
2 [
3,
6], nano-ZnO [
7], and nano-MgO [
8] fillers. There have been similar reports of increased
Tg, although the same kind of nanofiller was used. As reported,
Tg of epoxy resin was increased by 8 °C with the incorporation of 1 wt.% TiO
2 nanoparticles surface modified with gallic acid esters [
9]. The introduction of nano-SiO
2 modified by poly(propylene glycol)bis(2-aminopropyl ether) can increase the
Tg slightly, no more than 6 °C [
10]. There are few reports indicating that a composite metal-oxide nanofiller has led to a significant increase in
Tg of epoxy resins. In terms of engineering application, the existing methods to increase the
Tg have limited effect. Above all, there is no consistent conclusion on the effect of metal-oxide nanofiller on the
Tg, and it is not very clear how metal-oxide nanofillers affect the movement of the molecular chains in epoxy resin. Besides,
Tg is a parameter that reflects not only the glass transition process but also many related physical properties.
In this paper, epoxy/TiO2 nanocomposites were prepared with significantly improved Tg. The effect of functionalized nano-TiO2 on the motion of molecular chains was analyzed. The properties related to molecular motion were investigated for a better understanding of the internal principle in an epoxy resin-based nanocomposite dielectric.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
The studied epoxy resin was a bisphenol-A resin (E51). As a curing agent methyl, tetrahydrophthalic anhydride hardener (MTHPA) was used at 80 phr. Tris (dimethylaminomethyl) phenol (DMP-30) was used as an accelerator at 1.5 phr. For nano-fillers, highly pure grades of commercial particles of rutile titanium dioxide (TiO2, the average diameter of 25 nm) were added by the weight ratio. γ-(2,3-epoxypropoxy) propytrimethoxy silane (KH560) was used as a coupling agent for surface modification of TiO2 particles. The samples prepared were unfilled sheets of epoxy resin and four kinds of epoxy/nanocomposites which contain 0.1 wt.%, 1 wt.%, 3 wt.% and 5 wt.% addition of TiO2 nanoparticles.
2.2. Fabrication of Epoxy Nanocomposites
Nanoparticles need to be well dispersed and distributed in a matrix for better unleashing potential. To reduce the agglomeration and improve the good adhesion between fillers and matrix, the surface functionalization of nano-TiO
2 was performed by a solution mixing method. A moderate amount of nano-TiO
2 particles was firstly dispersed in ethanol and then the mixed solution was dispersed using a homogeniser instrument (Stansted Fluid Power LTD., Essex, UK). A Silane coupling agent (KH560) having a mass ratio of 1.5% to the nanoparticles was added to the mixed solution of ethanol and water. Then, two solutions were mixed in a beaker and subjected to ultrasonic vibration for 10 min. Alkoxy group of silane was hydrolyzed to produce silanol, which was connected on the surface of nanoparticles, as shown in
Figure 1.
Before the process of preparing epoxy resin specimens, epoxide was pre-heated to 60 °C in an oven to reduce its viscosity then mixed with the epoxy resin in a three-necked, round-bottomed flask. Heating during the stirring process allowed the nanoparticles to be uniformly mixed with the epoxy and evaporated the solvent. The hardener was added into the epoxy/nano-filler solutions and then the mixture was stirred for 15 min. This step was accomplished in a vacuum chamber to remove the gas bubbles. Next, the mixture was poured into the mold and placed into the oven at 80 °C to cure for 2 h, 105 °C to cure for 2 h followed by 4 h at 120 °C.
During the curing process, the mixing functionalized nano-TiO2 particles were connected to the molecular chain of epoxy resin through the crosslinking reactions of epoxy groups. In epoxy/TiO2 nanocomposites, tight reticulate structures connecting epoxy, silane coupling agent, nano-TiO2 and curing agent were formed though a reaction. Neat epoxy as well as functionalized epoxy/TiO2 nanocomposites with weight proportion of 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 3% and 5% were prepared. Before experiments, all samples were vacuum dried at 80 °C for 48 h.
2.3. Characterization
A scanning electron microscope (Keyence, Osaka, Japan) was used to verify the uniform dispersion of the nano-TiO
2 in the samples. Samples were broken in liquid nitrogen and sputter-coated with gold, and the fracture surface was showed in
Figure 2. It can be observed that the fracture surface of neat epoxy resin shows no impurity particles. The fracture surface of the epoxy/TiO
2 sample with 5 wt.% presents spherical particles. The nanoparticles were uniformly distributed without the introduction of voids and other defects. From the perspective of flatness, the fracture surface of neat epoxy resin was obviously smoother compared with the nanocomposite sample. For the influence of nano-TiO
2 to the mechanical properties of the epoxy resin matrix, the fracture surface represented beach stripes like crack.
Tg was measured using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (Mettler Toledo, Zurich, Switzerland). The samples were heated from 20 °C to 200 °C at a rate of 10 °C per minute under nitrogen atmosphere. This cycle was repeated twice for each sample and the second cycle was considered for calculation.
Changes in the viscoelastic properties of the samples were determined by Dynamic mechanical analysis using a DMA 861 analyzer (Mettler Toledo, Zurich, Switzerland). Briefly, samples were subjected to oscillating loading (Force was 3 N and frequency was 1 Hz) under bend load from −90 °C to temperature higher than the peak temperature of the transition (Rate of temperature rise was 3 °C/min).
Thermal conductivity was measured by the laser flash diffusivity instrument (NETZSCH LFA447, Bavaria, Germany) at different temperatures. The samples were 1 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm with a graphite coating surface.
Absorption currents under dc voltage were measured using electrometer (Keithley 6517B, Johnston, IA, USA) and three-electrode system. For the purpose of electrical measurements, gold electrodes were deposited on the sample surface to form additional electrodes. The dc voltage was 500 V and the samples were with the thickness of 1.5 mm.
Surface potential decay (SPD) curves of the samples after charged under dc voltage were obtained to calculate the surface trap parameters [
11,
12]. Samples with a thickness of 0.5 mm were charged by a needle-mesh electrode (needle electrode and mesh grid were applied with −8 kV and −4 kV) for 3 min, before quickly moved to the Kelvin probe of an electrostatic voltmeter(Trek, New York, NY, USA), and the surface potential was recorded [
11].
4. Discussion
Based on these experimental results, it can be concluded that the introduction of functionalized nano-TiO2 will hinder the motion of molecular chains of epoxy resin insulating materials. As a result, the glass transition process of epoxy resin occurs at a higher temperature range and most related physical properties were regulated accordingly.
First, it can be considered that the restriction of molecular chain movement is mainly related to the interphase, interfacial region of nanofiller and polymer matrix. Interphase can be considered as the third phase in epoxy/TiO
2 nanocomposites. It possesses properties that are distinct from the matrix resin. As represented in
Figure 10, although the volume ratio of the nanoparticles is very small in the matrix, the interphase with a thickness of tens of nanometers will have a relatively large volume ratio. Therefore, the physical properties of interphase will dominate the physical properties of the nanocomposites, and controlling the properties of interphase is the key to modulate the properties of nanocomposite dielectric. In this paper, interphase in epoxy/TiO
2 nanocomposites also plays an important role. As shown in
Figure 1, the use of a silane coupling agent containing an epoxy group functionalizes the surface of nano-TiO
2 fillers. This allows the nano-TiO
2 to be coated with epoxy groups, which can participate in the curing reaction of the epoxy resin. Consequently, the nano-TiO
2 was bounded to the molecular backbone. As shown in
Figure 10, there will be an interphase region with a certain thickness that affected by the connection effect to nanoparticles. The thermal motion of the molecular chains in the interphase region becomes difficult for the high mass of nano-TiO
2. With the increasing nanofiller content, the volume ratio of the interphase region will increase continuously. It is generally considered agglomerations of nanofiller under relatively high doping content will bring defects and voids that will cause the thermal motion of the matrix molecular chain. However, this phenomenon did not occur within the study content ranging up to 5 wt.% in this paper.
The interphase region in epoxy/TiO2 nanocomposites represents a stronger structure with restricted molecular chains. The most obvious property of epoxy resin affected by the interphase region is the enhanced Tg. It increases the maximum service temperature of epoxy resin insulating materials in power equipment. Besides, it will decrease the permittivity caused by displacement polarization of molecular chains. The thermal conductivity decreases at low doping content, but not large, which means just a little effect on the heat dissipation efficiency. For electric conduction at relatively low electric fields, it is mainly the impurity molecule, water molecule and other small molecules that are involved in charge transport. Some structures should provide channels, allowing ions space to move. Therefore, the motion of the molecular chain will affect the charge mobility. The inhibition of molecular chain motion will lead to a decrease of carrier mobility, and this is the reason why the Tg has a similar variation trend with the electric resistivity.
Some results reported in the literature usually show that inorganic fillers can improve the thermal conductivity of the composites to different degrees, and even a small amount of nano-sized fillers can improve the thermal conductivity slightly [
17,
18]. As stated in the introduction, there is no consistent conclusion on many physical properties of epoxy resin-based nanocomposite. Obviously, the results in this paper that thermal conductivity of epoxy/TiO
2 nanocomposite decreased at low doping content, are novel and helpful to further understand the diversity of nanocomposite dielectric. It has been explained in the result section that the decrease of thermal conductivity is caused by the scattering phenomena of phonons at the epoxy/nano-TiO
2 interface. Combining the concept of interphase, it may be speculated that the interphase has a different thermal conductivity comparing with the epoxy resin matrix. Under this assumption, there will be another interface between interphase and epoxy resin matrix, and phonon scattering at this interface may also be a reason for the reduction of thermal conductivity.
As to the
Tg, its value keeps increasing within the doping content range in this paper. It is not known to what extent the
Tg can be increased with continuously increasing the nano-TiO
2 content. But it is certain that the high content of nanoparticles will degrade the insulation performance. For example, the variation trend of electric resistivity with increasing nanofiller content is not consistent with the variation trend of
Tg at relatively high nano-TiO
2 content. It is speculated to be caused by more impurities in samples with more nanoparticles, and electric resistivity may be significantly reduced if more nanoparticles are added. As to the breakdown strength, a very important parameter of insulating materials, it reached the maximum at a relatively low nanofiller content as reported [
13,
19,
20]. Therefore, a wide range of physics properties of epoxy/TiO
2 nanocomposites including maximum service temperature should all be considered to determine the best loading content of nano-TiO
2 in the engineering application as high voltage insulating materials.
It is generally accepted that polymer based nanocomposites have some improved performances comparing with their original polymers. But such improved performances are usually explained in terms of each model or each thought corresponding to each of performances and phenomena. It is necessary to explain as many performances as possible based on one comprehensive model. Therefore, in our work, the effect of functionalized nano-TiO2 on the molecular motion of epoxy resin was studied according to the analysis of Tg, loss factor of modulus, thermal conductivity, electric resistivity, and trap characteristics.