Complex Nanostructures: Synthesis and Energetic Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Synthesis and Structure of Complex Nanostructures
2.1. Controlled branching through sequential seeding
2.2. In situ seeding introduced branching
2.3. Phase transition introduced branching
2.4. Surface energy difference introduced branching
3. Applications of Complex Nanostructures
3.1. Hyperbranched nanostructures for hybrid solar cells
3.2. Complex heterostructures for photoelectrochemical H2O splitting
3.3. Si/TiSi2 heterostructures as high-capacity electrode material for rechargeable batteries
4. Conclusions and Prospects
Acknowledgements
References and Notes
- Shockley, W.; Queisser, H.J. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells. J. Appl. Phys. 1961, 32, 510–519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bolton, J.R. Solar photoproduction of hydrogen: A review. Solar Energy 1996, 57, 37–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- King, R.R.; Law, D.C.; Edmondson, K.M.; Fetzer, C.M.; Kinsey, G.S.; Yoon, H.; Sherif, R.A.; Karam, N.H. 40% efficient metamorphic GaInP/GaInAs/Ge multijunction solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2007, 90, 183516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lewis, N.S. Powering the planet. Mater. Res. Bull. 2007, 32, 808–820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lewis, N.S. Toward cost-effective solar energy use. Science 2007, 315, 798–801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nelson, J. The Physics of Solar Cells; Imperial College Press: Longdon, UK, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Miles, R.W.; Zoppi, G.; Forbes, I. Inorganic photovoltaic cells. Mater. Today 2007, 10, 20–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mayer, A.C.; Scully, S.R.; Hardin, B.E.; Rowell, M.W.; McGehee, M.D. Polymer-based solar cells. Mater. Today 2007, 10, 28–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oregan, B.; Gratzel, M. A low-cost, high-efficiency solar-cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films. Nature 1991, 353, 737–740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gratzel, M. Dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Photochem. Photobiol., C 2003, 4, 145–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alivisatos, A.P.; Cummings, P.; De Yoreo, J.; Fichthorn, K.; Gates, B.; Hwang, R.; Lowndes, D.; Majumdar, A.; Makowski, L.; Michalske, T.; Misewich, J.; Murray, C.; Sibener, S.; Teague, C.; Williams, E. Nanoscience research for energy needs. In Proceedings of the National Nanotechnology Initiative Grand Challenge Workshop, Alexandria, VA, USA, March 2004.
- Greenham, N.C.; Gratzel, M. Nanostructured solar cells. Nanotechnology 2008, 19, 420201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huynh, W.U.; Dittmer, J.J.; Alivisatos, A.P. Hybrid nanorod-polymer solar cells. Science 2002, 295, 2425–2427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mor, G.K.; Varghese, O.K.; Paulose, M.; Shankar, K.; Grimes, C.A. A review on highly ordered, vertically oriented TiO2 nanotube arrays: Fabrication, material properties, and solar energy applications. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2006, 90, 2011–2075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tian, B.; Zheng, X.; Kempa, T.J.; Fang, Y.; Yu, N.; Yu, G.; Huang, J.; Lieber, C.M. Coaxial silicon nanowires as solar cells and nanoelectronic power sources. Nature 2007, 449, 885–889. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maiolo, J.R.; Kayes, B.M.; Filler, M.A.; Putnam, M.C.; Kelzenberg, M.D.; Atwater, H.A.; Lewis, N.S. High aspect ratio silicon wire array photoelectrochemical cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 12346–12347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goodey, A.P.; Eichfeld, S.M.; Lew, K.K.; Redwing, J.M.; Mallouk, T.E. Silicon nanowire array photelectrochemical cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 12344–12345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yuhas, B.D.; Yang, P. Nanowire-based all-oxide solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 3756–3761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Manna, L.; Milliron, D.J.; Meisel, A.; Scher, E.C.; Alivisatos, A.P. Controlled growth of tetrapod-branched inorganic nanocrystals. Nat. Mater 2003, 2, 382–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kanaras, A.G.; Sonnichsen, C.; Liu, H.T.; Alivisatos, A.P. Controlled synthesis of hyperbranched inorganic nanocrystals with rich three-dimensional structures. Nano Lett. 2005, 5, 2164–2167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gur, I.; Fromer, N.A.; Chen, C.P.; Kanaras, A.G.; Alivisatos, A.P. Hybrid solar cells with prescribed nanoscale morphologies based on hyperbranched semiconductor nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 409–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, D.; Qian, F.; Yang, C.; Zhong, Z.H.; Lieber, C.M. Rational growth of branched and hyperbranched nanowire structures. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 871–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, S.; Liu, X.H.; Lin, Y.J.; Wang, D.W. Spontaneous growth of highly conductive two-dimensional TiSi2 nanonets. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 7681–7684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, Y.; Zhou, S.; Liu, X.; Sheehan, S.; Wang, D. TiO2/TiSi2 heterostructures for high-efficiency photoelectrochemical H2O splitting. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 2772–2773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhou, S.; Liu, X.; Lin, Y.; Wang, D. Rational synthesis and structural characterizations of complex TiSi2 nanostructures. Chem. Mater. 2009, 21, 1023–1027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, S.; Liu, X.H.; Wang, D.W. Si/TiSi2 Hetero-nanostructures as anode material for Li ion batteries. Nano Lett. 2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wagner, R.S.; Ellis, W.C. Vapor-liquid-solid mechanism of single crystal growth. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1964, 4, 89–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dick, K.A.; Deppert, K.; Larsson, M.W.; Martensson, T.; Seifert, W.; Wallenberg, L.R.; Samuelson, L. Synthesis of branched 'nanotrees' by controlled seeding of multiple branching events. Nat. Mater. 2004, 3, 380–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhu, J.; Peng, H.L.; Chan, C.K.; Jarausch, K.; Zhang, X.F.; Cui, Y. Hyperbranched lead selenide nanowire networks. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 1095–1099. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dick, K.A.; Deppert, K.; Karlsson, L.S.; Seifert, W.; Wallenberg, L.R.; Samuelson, L. Position-controlled interconnected InAs nanowire networks. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 2842–2847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wan, Q.; Wei, M.; Zhi, D.; MacManus-Driscoll, J.L.; Blamire, M.G. Epitaxial growth of vertically aligned and branched single-crystalline Tin-doped indium oxide nanowire arrays. Adv. Mater. 2006, 18, 234–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, C.; Liu, B.; Yang, H.; Zhou, W.; Sun, L.; Chen, R.; Yu, S.F.; Zhang, J.; Gong, H.; Sun, H.; Fan, H.J. Hierarchical assembly of ZnO nanostructures on SnO2 backbone nanowires: Low-temperature hydrothermal preparation and optical properties. ACS Nano 2009, 3, 3069–3076. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lao, J.Y.; Wen, J.G.; Ren, Z.F. Hierarchical ZnO nanostructures. Nano Lett. 2002, 2, 1287–1291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jung, Y.; Ko, D.K.; Agarwal, R. Synthesis and structural characterization of single-crystalline branched nanowire heterostructures. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 264–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wan, Q.; Dattoli, E.N.; Fung, W.Y.; Guo, W.; Chen, Y.; Pan, X.; Lu, W. High-performance transparent conducting oxide nanowires. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 2909–2915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cao, A.Y.; Veedu, V.P.; Li, X.S.; Yao, Z.L.; Ghasemi-Nejhad, M.N.; Ajayan, P.M. Multifunctional brushes made from carbon nanotubes. Nat. Mater. 2005, 4, 540–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bierman, M.J.; Lau, Y.K.A.; Jin, S. Hyperbranched PbS and PbSe nanowires and the effect of hydrogen gas on their synthesis. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 2907–2912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lao, J.Y.; Huang, J.Y.; Wang, D.Z.; Ren, Z.F. ZnO nanobridges and nanonails. Nano Lett. 2003, 3, 235–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bierman, M.J.; Lau, Y.K.A.; Kvit, A.V.; Schmitt, A.L.; Jin, S. Dislocation-driven nanowire growth and eshelby twist. Science 2008, 320, 1060–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lau, Y.K.A.; Chernak, D.J.; Bierman, M.J.; Jin, S. Formation of PbS nanowire pine trees driven by screw dislocations. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 16461–16471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bierman, M.J.; Lau, Y.K.A.; Jin, S. Hyperbranched PbS and PbSe nanowires and the effect of hydrogen gas on their synthesis. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 2907–2912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, D.L.; Lieber, C.M. Inorganic materials: Nanocrystals branch out. Nat. Mater. 2003, 2, 355–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Milliron, D.J.; Hughes, S.M.; Cui, Y.; Manna, L.; Li, J.B.; Wang, L.W.; Alivisatos, A.P. Colloidal nanocrystal heterostructures with linear and branched topology. Nature 2004, 430, 190–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ding, Y.; Wang, Z.L.; Sun, T.J.; Qiu, J.S. Zinc-blende ZnO and its role in nucleating wurtzite tetrapods and twinned nanowires. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2007, 90, 153510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beyers, R.; Sinclair, R. Metastable phase formation in titanium-silicon thin films. J. Appl. Phys. 1985, 57, 5240–5245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Murarka, S.P.; Fraser, D.B.; Sinha, A.K.; Levinstein, H.J. Refractory silicides of titanium and tantalum for low-resistivity gates and interconnects. IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices 1980, 27, 1409–1417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ekman, M.; Ozolins, V. Electronic structure and bonding properties of titanium silicides. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter 1998, 57, 4419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mor, G.K.; Shankar, K.; Paulose, M.; Varghese, O.K.; Grimes, C.A. Enhanced photocleavage of water using titania nanotube arrays. Nano Lett. 2005, 5, 191–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pore, V.; Rahtu, A.; Leskela, M.; Ritala, M.; Sajavaara, D.; Keinonen, J. Atomic layer deposition of photocatalytic TiO2 thin films from titanium tetramethoxide and water. Chem. Vapor Deposition 2004, 10, 143–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
© 2010 by the authors; licensee Molecular Diversity Preservation International, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Liu, X.; Lin, Y.; Zhou, S.; Sheehan, S.; Wang, D. Complex Nanostructures: Synthesis and Energetic Applications. Energies 2010, 3, 285-300. https://doi.org/10.3390/en3030285
Liu X, Lin Y, Zhou S, Sheehan S, Wang D. Complex Nanostructures: Synthesis and Energetic Applications. Energies. 2010; 3(3):285-300. https://doi.org/10.3390/en3030285
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Xiaohua, Yongjing Lin, Sa Zhou, Stafford Sheehan, and Dunwei Wang. 2010. "Complex Nanostructures: Synthesis and Energetic Applications" Energies 3, no. 3: 285-300. https://doi.org/10.3390/en3030285