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Review

A Review of Modern Electric Vehicle Innovations for Energy Transition

by
Bi-Hai Jiang
1,
Chao-Chung Hsu
1,
Nai-Wei Su
1 and
Chun-Cheng Lin
1,2,*
1
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
2
Department of International Master Program of Smart Manufacturing and Applied Information, National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taichung 411, Taiwan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2024, 17(12), 2906; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122906
Submission received: 21 May 2024 / Revised: 6 June 2024 / Accepted: 10 June 2024 / Published: 13 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Technology Trends, Challenges and Opportunities—2nd Edition)
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Abstract

:
As climate change worsens and the importance of energy security grows, numerous countries have adopted energy transition as a key policy objective. Electric vehicles (EVs) play a pivotal role in this transition by diminishing reliance on fossil fuels and reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and other harmful gases. While EVs are poised to be a crucial technology for achieving energy transition, substantial advancements in technology, infrastructure development, and policy support are essential for their full potential to be realized. This review examines the latest advancements in EV technology and market trends, and also addresses the challenges facing EVs and the potential opportunities for future development.

1. Introduction

Addressing the climate crisis has emerged as a paramount challenge in contemporary times, necessitating a comprehensive transformation of the energy infrastructure to achieve net-zero emissions [1]. In recent years, spurred by the acceleration of the global energy transition and heightened environmental concerns, electric vehicles (EVs) have gained significant attention. EVs contribute to reducing oil dependency and lowering CO2 emissions [2,3,4,5]. Studies assessing the impact of EVs on CO2 emissions confirm that EVs can substantially decrease these emissions and aid in mitigating climate change. Additionally, EVs enhance the urban environment by diminishing traffic noise and improving air quality [6]. With the robust advancement and implementation of EV policies across various nations, the automotive industry is witnessing a pronounced shift towards energy conservation and carbon reduction. This shift has intensified the demand for innovations in reducing vehicle pollution [7,8], making the research on the development and application of EV technology a critical area of focus in contemporary society.
In contemporary urban settings, the prevalent use of private vehicles has led to significant traffic congestion and air pollution, which adversely affect public health and urban economic growth. In response, numerous cities have embarked on initiatives to promote environmentally sustainable transportation options, including EVs and public transit systems. EVs, recognized for their environmental benefits, have garnered substantial interest. However, their widespread adoption is hindered by challenges such as inadequate charging infrastructure and limited battery range. To overcome these obstacles, extensive research has been directed toward developing advanced technologies like fast charging [9,10,11,12], smart charging systems, and energy efficiency improvements [13]. These efforts aim to improve the usability, reliability, and overall acceptance of EVs.
Transportation’s reliance on petroleum represents a significant portion of global energy consumption, which has been a crucial factor in environmental degradation in recent years [14,15]. This dependence has exacerbated air quality problems, drawing global governmental attention as air pollution problems have become more severe [16]. Particulate matter (PM2.5) from vehicle emissions has become a notable indicator of worsening air pollution, contributing to haze conditions that further compound the detrimental effects of air pollution [17,18]. PM2.5 not only influences cloud formation and precipitation, indirectly impacting climate change, but it also deteriorates health conditions and increases the risk of fatal diseases, including cancer [19,20,21]. Vehicle emissions, predominantly from gasoline and diesel engines, contribute over 90% of total vehicular PM2.5 emissions [22]. Additionally, the energy consumption associated with motor vehicles further degrades environmental quality [23,24]. In contrast, new energy vehicles (NEVs) [17], which derive part or all of their power from onboard supplies and are motor-driven, offer substantial benefits in reducing emissions of air pollutants [25,26].
The primary motivation behind the development of EVs is to diminish reliance on fossil fuels and decrease carbon emissions. By 2040, it is projected that EVs, making up 33% of vehicle ownership, will displace 8.5 million barrels of motor vehicle fuel daily. This will significantly reduce fossil fuel consumption from the current share in the power industry as mentioned in the Statistical Review of World Energy 2023 [27,28], in which fossil fuels account for 35% of total global electricity generation. However, this will only account for 8.6% of the current global daily fuel demand. In 2015, EV sales surged by 60%, aligning closely with Tesla’s projected annual growth rate through 2020. This growth mirrors historical shifts, such as when the Ford Model T began to replace horse-drawn carriages. Consequently, the rising adoption of EVs is poised to significantly impact future oil demand.
According to Bloomberg estimates in 2019 (Figure 1), if EV sales continued to grow at an annual rate of 60%, they were expected to displace 2 million barrels of crude oil consumption per day by 2023—a conservative estimate previously set for 2028. This projected decrease in oil demand mirrors the surplus that triggered the oil price surge in 2014. By 2040, there could be between 350 and 650 million EVs on the roads, as depicted in Figure 1, potentially reducing oil demand by 5 to 8.5 million barrels per day. While global oil demand remains robust over the long term, consumption attributed to transportation has begun to decline in certain segments, such as buses. By the end of 2018, electric buses alone were anticipated to reduce oil demand by approximately 233,000 barrels per day. Combined with other EVs, the total reduction in oil consumption could reach 279,000 barrels per day, equivalent to the daily oil consumption of Greece. The development and adoption of EVs are inevitable, as they are poised to dominate the future market in an era of energy transformation.
However, a review of past research on EVs reveals that their development still faces significant challenges. The main problems impeding the development of EVs are detailed in Table 1.
In summary, as the challenges of climate change, energy security, and air pollution intensify, there is an increasing demand for sustainable development and green transportation solutions. EVs, which utilize diverse power sources including batteries and fuel cells, play a crucial role in the energy transition. They reduce reliance on traditional fuels, thereby decreasing carbon emissions and mitigating air pollution. Compared to conventional vehicles powered by petroleum, EVs offer effective solutions to energy scarcity and environmental degradation [45]. The widespread adoption of EVs in consumer markets is essential for the transportation sector to meet its carbon reduction targets effectively [46]. Additionally, continuous technological advancements are enhancing EV range and charging efficiency. Efforts to develop smart charging systems, expand charging infrastructure, and implement remote monitoring systems are underway. These initiatives are critical for promoting the widespread use of EVs and accelerating the energy transition process.
This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis and summary of the recent advancements in EV development, with a focus on their role in energy transformation. It covers the latest developments and pertinent challenges facing EVs. Additionally, this review will outline critical future directions for EV development, anticipated to enhance their broader application. By promoting the widespread adoption of EVs, this initiative seeks to achieve reduced carbon emissions and sustainable transportation development, thus playing a vital role in the energy transition.
Although several similar review articles and research reports exist, this review distinguishes itself by meticulously classifying and summarizing the latest research findings, enabling readers to gain a clearer understanding of the role of EVs in energy transformation, alongside emerging trends and challenges. It emphasizes the application of innovative technologies in the EV sector, such as advanced battery management systems, smart charging devices, and Internet of Vehicles (IoV) technologies. Furthermore, this review addresses two critical factors influencing the popularity and promotion of EVs: policy and market dynamics. Looking ahead, it explores future development trends and challenges facing EVs, offering potential solutions and recommendations. This provides valuable insights and guidance for the ongoing development of the EV industry.
This review comprehensively summarizes and presents the latest advancements in EV technology research from four key perspectives: technology, policy, economy, and society. It covers a range of topics including EV energy management systems, charging technologies, intelligent control systems, policy support, and the economic and social impacts associated with EVs. Furthermore, this review predicts and analyzes future development trends for EVs, which encompass technological innovations, market promotion strategies, the policy landscape, and societal perceptions of EVs. By doing so, it identifies potential research directions and application prospects, offering a well-rounded view of the field’s trajectory and its broader implications.
The rest of this survey is organized as follows. Section 2 gives an overview of the main problems of EV development. Section 3, Section 4, Section 5 and Section 6 provide a detailed summary of the problems and solutions encountered in the development of EVs from the four dimensions of technology, policy, economy, and society. Section 7 presents the discussion and future challenges. Finally, Section 8 offers the conclusion.

2. Main Problems in the Development of EVs

This review focuses on the challenges and solutions that arise from the development of EV technology during the energy transition. It takes a holistic approach by considering the entire transportation ecosystem, which includes vehicles, charging infrastructure, power grids, and energy supply chains. EV technology is posited as a critical pathway toward achieving energy transformation, but it encounters numerous technical and policy hurdles in its practical implementation. To address these complexities, this review systematically categorizes and discusses the problems and solutions across four key dimensions pertinent to the development of EV in the context of the energy transition (Table 2).
To gain a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by EV technology during the energy transition, and to offer pertinent solutions, this review differs from prior studies that focused on a single aspect. It considers a broad array of factors that influence the development of EVs, encompassing technological, policy, economic, and social dimensions. This multi-faceted approach not only addresses the diverse problems within each category but also reflects the interconnected layers and sectors involved in the energy transition. This necessitates a holistic consideration of all these factors to effectively tackle the complex dynamics at play in advancing EV technology.

2.1. Technical Dimension

Technology serves as a pivotal driving force in the advancement of EVs and the broader energy transition. Central to EV technology is the battery technology, making the study of its progress essential for enhancing the efficiency and driving range of EVs [67]. Additionally, the development of fast charging infrastructure and the enhancement of battery management systems are critical components of the technical dimension [9]. Improvements in battery efficiency, the construction of charging infrastructure, and the optimization of EV management systems are vital to the continued improvement and innovation in EV technology.

2.2. Policy Dimension

Policy plays a crucial role in advancing the energy transition and boosting the adoption of EVs. Governmental initiatives, including investment support, the establishment of unified charging standards and interfaces, and various incentives, are instrumental in expanding the EV market and the development of its associated infrastructure [68]. In the United States, state government policies offer incentives such as rebates to promote EV ownership by mitigating the high initial costs associated with these vehicles [69]. Additionally, many states have adopted zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) programs, which mandate automakers to meet specific sales quotas for battery-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles. Furthermore, legislation has been enacted in several states that will prohibit the sale of new gasoline-powered vehicles by 2035 [70].

2.3. Economic Dimension

Economic factors play a significant role in shaping the development of the EV market. The cost and pricing of EVs, battery expenses, and other economic considerations like financial support and tax incentives significantly influence consumer purchasing decisions and the market competitiveness of EVs. By examining these aspects through the lens of economic dimensions, it is possible to conduct an in-depth study into the economic viability, cost reduction strategies, and promotional policies affecting EVs [71]. This approach allows for a thorough understanding of how economic factors contribute to the adoption and growth of the EV market.

2.4. Social Dimension

Social factors are crucial in shaping the development and acceptance of the EV market. Public awareness, acceptance, and consumer behavior significantly influence the popularity of EVs. Additionally, the image, perceived quality, and broader social impact of EVs also garner significant attention from a societal perspective. By analyzing these elements through the classification of social dimensions, it becomes possible to delve deeply into factors such as public attitudes toward EVs, consumer preferences, and overall social acceptance. This comprehensive examination allows for a nuanced understanding of how social dynamics contribute to the adoption and success of EVs in the market [72,73,74].

3. Technical Problems and Solutions

This study categorizes the technical challenges associated with EVs into three subcategories within the technical dimension: battery technology, charging infrastructure, and EV management systems, as detailed in Table 3. Each subcategory identifies the primary problems in the field and offers commonly implemented solutions.
From Table 3, one can clearly compare the problems and solutions across different subcategories, gaining insight into the specific concerns and challenges of each. Within the technical dimension, it is possible to further break down the categories, allowing for a more detailed examination of the problems and solutions related to the energy transition and the development of EVs.

3.1. Battery Technology

The significantly longer charging time of EVs (over 30 min) compared to the refueling time for traditional gasoline vehicles remains a major hurdle for their widespread adoption [84,85]. For instance, even Tesla models equipped with fast charging capabilities require more than 30 min to achieve an 80% state of charge (SoC) [86]. To mirror the refueling experience of gasoline vehicles, the US Department of Energy (US DOE) has established targets for Extremely Fast Charging (XFC) for EVs. These include reducing the charging time to less than 15 min to reach 80% SOC and achieving a discharge specific energy of over 180 Wh/kg. Additionally, the capacity loss must be less than 20% after 500 XFC cycles [87].
Research and development in battery technology primarily focus on three areas: fuel cells, lead-acid batteries, and lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries, in particular, are the dominant technology in the current market and the principal focus for future advancements [67]. In terms of energy capacity, electricity, recyclability, and cost, lithium-ion batteries continue to set the industry standard [50]. The authors of [49] have analyzed the challenges that impede the rapid charging of lithium-ion batteries from a physical chemistry and materials science perspective. They identified the rapid diffusion of lithium ions within materials as a critical factor for fast charging. Additionally, the microstructure of the cathode composite gains significance when solid electrolytes replace liquid ones, necessitating robust thermal management systems to optimize heat dissipation, thereby minimizing degradation and prolonging battery life. Moreover, enhancements in charging protocols, such as pulsed charging and the stepwise reduction of charging currents, offer significant benefits. These methods not only improve performance but also mitigate degradation compared to the traditional constant current–constant voltage (CC-CV) charging techniques.
According to [60], a decrease in battery prices is anticipated to stabilize production costs by 2030, enabling manufacturers to offer EVs at prices competitive with those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), without the need for subsidies. As both weight and volumetric density are expected to improve at the cell and pack levels, the range discrepancy between battery EVs (BEVs) and ICEVs is likely to diminish. This improvement could alleviate consumer concerns about limited range and enhance the appeal of fully EVs.

3.2. Charging Infrastructure

The authors of [88] estimate that to satisfy the energy requirements of various EVs by 2030, approximately 130 million private chargers and 13 million public chargers will be necessary. This underscores the urgent need for substantial investments in charging infrastructure. While dynamic charging offers the potential for long-distance travel without the need for large batteries, it generally remains prohibitively expensive for passenger vehicles, particularly with the advancements in battery energy densities. Consequently, researchers are increasingly focusing on XFC, which demands charging rates equal to or exceeding 6 C [89]. Beyond the vehicles themselves, charging infrastructure plays a crucial role in enabling travel. Compared to ICEVs, pure EVs necessitate a comprehensive national charging network to compensate for their currently limited range [60].
The planning of charging stations and energy management for EVs constitutes a complex challenge that demands significant effort from researchers and policymakers alike. A thorough review of EV charging is provided in references [53,90]. Reference [91] introduces a dynamic programming approach for managing energy at charging stations under uncertain conditions. A strategy based on game theory for determining the pricing of photovoltaic (PV) auxiliary charging stations is proposed in [92], which considers minimizing battery degradation and charging costs while maximizing operational revenue. Reference [93] presents an energy management strategy for EVs within a smart micro-grid, while [94] proposes a smart charging strategy employing meta-heuristics. Comprehensive reviews of charging station layout methods and their effects on the power grid are discussed in [95,96]. Recent advancements in optimization techniques for identifying optimal locations for charging stations are reviewed in [97]. The significant load that charging places on the grid remains a major unresolved problem. Despite the positive environmental and economic impacts of the proliferation of EVs and their charging stations, they can also adversely affect the grid [98]. Various experimental studies have implemented numerous management strategies to mitigate these impacts, including the utilization of energy storage systems (ESSs) and the integration of renewable energy sources (RESs) with charging systems. The benefits of implementing ESSs to lessen the negative effects of EV charging on the grid are highlighted in [99,100]. Reference [101] proposes a method for valley filling in the network load curve, which helps relieve pressure on the transmission system. These impacts can also be significantly reduced by controlling the timing and duration of EV charging and by effectively regulating the charging process. The adoption of intelligent multi-agent metering systems is suggested in [102] to alleviate problems related to network load.
The surge in EV ownership is inevitably placing a greater strain on the power system. While fossil fuels remain less expensive to produce compared to renewable electricity, the superior efficiency of the EV power system stands out as a significant advantage of pure EVs [60]. One effective strategy to mitigate this problem is the integration of RESs into the grid [103].
Regarding charging infrastructure, there are currently nearly 1.8 million private and public charging stations worldwide, with one-third being fast chargers. A recent report indicates that public expenditure on EV subsidies and incentives is set to nearly double in 2021, reaching close to USD 30 billion. However, under current policy projections, it is anticipated that by 2030, EVs will constitute over 20% of global vehicle sales, with the total fleet surpassing 200 million units. To meet this demand, the number of charging facilities will need to increase more than twelvefold from today’s numbers. Consequently, there is an urgent need for both governments and private sectors to expedite the expansion of charging infrastructure to alleviate the range anxiety experienced by vehicle owners.

3.3. Fault Diagnosis Technology and Smart Network Technology

EVs are pivotal to the future of transportation, enhancing fuel economy and contributing to the reduction of carbon emissions, thereby aiding the energy transition. EVs are increasingly recognized for their role in meeting the demands for enhanced performance, safety, and reduced environmental impacts. To further improve the efficiency of these vehicles and decrease maintenance costs, the development of early fault diagnosis (FD) systems is essential. The swift and accurate identification of faults in EV drive systems is crucial for enhancing vehicle safety and reliability [104]. This facilitates the early detection of deteriorating vehicle conditions, enabling proactive solutions and minimizing the occurrence of sudden component failures. Reference [105] provides a comprehensive review of various faults and diagnostic methods for EV components, including motors, batteries, inverters/converters, and charging systems. The research into FD across different EV components establishes a conceptual framework for the FD of EVs. The signal patterns of various components in operational EVs often exhibit uncertainty. A significant challenge for future research lies in effectively identifying the health of components under varying operating conditions.
The study in [81] developed a fault tree and knowledge base for an expert system based on the structural and fault characteristics of EV drive systems. The interface engine for this expert system, dedicated to diagnosing faults in EV drive systems, was designed to ensure effective operation. The expert system was built using Visual Studio and SQL Server, tools chosen for their robust capabilities. After extensive testing and real-world application, the system was proven capable of providing accurate diagnostic results and maintenance strategies. It demonstrated significant versatility and practicality, making it a valuable tool in the ongoing maintenance and optimization of EV drive systems.
As EVs gain popularity, their charging patterns become increasingly random and intermittent, both spatially and temporally. This variability poses significant challenges for the safe and stable operation of the power grid and affects power quality. There is a growing interconnectedness between information flow and energy flow within vehicle charging infrastructures, and the integration among these elements is intensifying. Utilizing the layered architecture of cyber-physical systems, the establishment of a Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) system integration mechanism is crucial. This approach will aid in researching strategies to minimize the impact of EV charging and discharging on the main power grid. V2G represents a bidirectional interaction technology between EVs and the power grid, allowing for two-way energy storage. Through V2G, EVs can act as loads during charging and as temporary energy sources during discharging, contributing to grid stability and flexibility [83].
Efficient and reliable communication between the charging system and the EV is essential for the optimal management of the charging process. Various radio access technologies (RATs) are explored in the existing literature to facilitate communication between highly mobile EVs and charging subsystems, enabling the exchange of data such as SoC, user location, and information pertinent to charging decisions. While efforts to alleviate range anxiety through increased EV battery capacity have led to higher vehicle purchase prices, thereby slowing widespread adoption, the overall lower operating costs of EVs due to the superior efficiency of their motors and comparatively low electricity costs can make them more economical than diesel- and gasoline-powered vehicles. This is particularly true when considering the integration of RESs and smart grid technologies. Furthermore, the expansion of EV charging infrastructure, alongside government subsidies and incentive programs for green energy, continues to accelerate the adoption of EVs.
The evolution of various RATs and physical layer security (PLS) strategies is anticipated to enhance mobility-aware coordination and scheduling, as well as improving energy management. However, much of the existing literature on EV charging coordination presumes the presence of a robust vehicle communication infrastructure, often overlooking the specific communication network requirements necessary for efficient EV charging management within the IoV. Consequently, there is a clear need for further research to develop a comprehensive end-to-end architecture for the Internet of EVs (IoEV), delineate the roles of different RATs and PLS technologies, and realize effective EV charging coordination.
As the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into society deepens, its application in the development of EVs becomes increasingly critical. AI aids in various aspects such as regulating battery temperature, enhancing charging processes, and optimizing energy-efficient routes. A notable innovation involves a machine learning-based routing method that predicts energy consumption across various road segments within planned or actual vehicle routes [106]. Moreover, a study presented in [107] introduces a novel approach using a genetic algorithm still in development, which incorporates learning processes to address route planning challenges for EV fleets. This method considers both the maximum battery capacity and the availability of charging stations along the route. Additionally, to enhance thermal management systems and minimize overall energy consumption, reference [108] recommends the use of artificial neural networks (ANNs) for managing battery temperatures. This approach ensures that battery temperatures remain within acceptable limits. Further research in the literature [109] explores the correlation between battery thermal behavior and design factors. Their findings suggest that a cooling strategy employing distributed forced convection could achieve uniform temperature and voltage distribution across the battery pack at varying discharge rates.
AI is poised to propel the development of innovative solutions that address a range of challenges. These include streamlining the battery charging process through advanced features such as pre-booking of charging points, automated power balancing, and context-based adaptive charging. Additionally, AI is set to enhance power generation processes to manage significant increases in grid power demands. This will be achieved by providing real-time power requirement forecasts and mobility analytics for EVs. Consequently, the emergence of the Internet of EVs is imminent. This development will not only transform the way people travel but also open up new avenues for exploration through novel applications and services.

4. Policy Problems and Solutions

Policy problems and solutions in the development of EVs are depicted in Table 4. To facilitate the seamless and effective integration of EVs into smart city infrastructure, it is crucial to establish coordination and collaboration among various stakeholders including governments, businesses, and the public [110,111]. Governments can encourage the consumer adoption of EVs through incentives such as tax credits or subsidies and by investing in comprehensive charging infrastructure. Industry stakeholders, in partnership with governments, can address these challenges and further the adoption of EVs, thereby contributing to reductions in carbon emissions and air pollution [68].
Despite their numerous benefits, EVs currently hold a small market share, accounting for only 14% of global passenger car sales [112]. Among the key challenges hindering widespread adoption are underdeveloped battery technologies, which render EVs less appealing due to limited range, long charging times, and high initial costs [113]. Furthermore, the scarcity of charging infrastructure represents a significant obstacle [114]. Typically, EVs have shorter driving ranges compared to conventional vehicles, leading to concerns about depleting the battery before reaching the destination. Although advancements are being made to extend the driving range of EVs, this problem remains a challenge for drivers who travel long distances [115]. However, the ability for consumers to reserve charging slots ahead of time could mitigate these concerns by ensuring the availability of charging options. This arrangement allows drivers to plan alternative timings if initial slots are full. Enhancing the charging infrastructure is also crucial in alleviating “range anxiety” by providing clear information and support to address drivers’ concerns about the charging network [116].
EV infrastructure planners should prioritize “fast DC charging”, utilize mathematical vehicle models to accurately estimate energy consumption and range under “real road” conditions, and focus on developing a comprehensive nationwide charging network. The establishment of a correct, dynamic, and extensive EV charging infrastructure can significantly reduce range anxiety [117]. However, achieving this is not feasible without governmental incentives or public–private partnerships [118]. Governments need to devise strategies for encouraging the EV market through incentives and building adequate charging facilities to meet consumer demands while minimizing social costs [119,120].
The implementation of EVs encounters several hurdles, including high initial costs, limited driving range, inadequate charging infrastructure, and public skepticism. Nevertheless, these challenges can be addressed through coordinated government policies, private sector investments, and public education initiatives aimed at boosting EV adoption. Additionally, developing new business models that support EV use, investing in charging infrastructure, enhancing battery technology, improving charging speeds, and raising awareness about the benefits of EVs are crucial steps. By overcoming these obstacles, it is possible to accelerate the shift towards sustainable transportation systems and alleviate the impacts of climate change, thereby advancing energy transition strategies. Existing zero-emission light-duty vehicle policies and incentives in selected countries can serve as models for global governments [58].
Additionally, there is a noticeable deficiency in comprehensive planning for market energy transformation, and traditional energy market rules are ill suited to new energy sectors. To remedy this problem, governments should devise a holistic energy strategy and reform energy market regulations to facilitate the integration and advancement of new energy sources. Furthermore, in response to the public’s limited awareness and acceptance of EVs, as well as a general lack of understanding of EV technology, governments should intensify efforts in EV education and public awareness campaigns. Such initiatives are crucial for enhancing public knowledge and acceptance of EVs, thereby promoting broader adoption [68].

5. Economic Problems and Solutions

Energy transition is an essential response to climate change and unstable energy supplies, with EVs emerging as a significant player due to their zero-emission features and energy efficiency benefits. However, from an economic standpoint, the development of EVs encounters numerous challenges that could impede their effective contribution to the energy transition (Table 5). These challenges need to be addressed to fully harness the potential of EVs in advancing sustainable energy goals.
Higher purchase prices and concerns regarding battery charging technology are significant factors that deter consumers from purchasing NEVs [44]. The manufacturing cost of EVs is predominantly driven by the cost of batteries, which elevates their selling prices and restricts their widespread adoption. Governments can mitigate these costs through direct subsidies, as well as reductions and exemptions in vehicle registration and road use taxes, thereby encouraging more consumers to opt for EVs. This approach has been confirmed by many countries, as illustrated in Figure 2.
The development of charging infrastructure entails significant investment, and a lack of sufficient charging stations can negatively impact user experience and their willingness to purchase EVs. Through collaborations between government bodies and private enterprises, investment in the expansion of charging station networks can enhance coverage and improve convenience for users. Additionally, the technical constraints of battery capacity, driving range, and charging speed significantly influence consumer preferences and market demand. Both government and enterprises should persist in funding research and development to enhance battery technology, thereby improving the capacity, range, and charging efficiency of EVs. Compared to traditional vehicles, the secondary market for EVs is less developed. EVs tend to depreciate rapidly, and the value of the batteries also diminishes over time. Consequently, the resale value of EVs is generally lower, which can affect consumers’ purchasing decisions. Encouraging the reuse of EV parts can foster a circular economy model, potentially offsetting some costs and appealing to eco-conscious consumers.
EVs, as a crucial component of the energy transition, encounter economic challenges including high costs and technical limitations. Nevertheless, these obstacles can be surmounted through government policy support, technological advancements, and the adoption of a circular economy model. It is essential for governments, businesses, and all societal sectors to collaborate in promoting the sustainable development of EVs and realizing the objectives of energy transformation.

6. Social Problems and Solutions

Public awareness, attitudes, and acceptance of EVs, alongside opportunities for participation in the development of these vehicles and the broader energy transition, are crucial (Table 6). Understanding consumer needs and preferences is essential to offering a diverse range of products and services, thereby fostering the growth of the EV market. Additionally, the extent of public involvement in the development of EVs and energy transition processes is significant. Promoting public engagement in decision-making and establishing collaborative partnerships with government, industry, and research institutions are vital steps towards achieving these goals.
People who are inclined to purchase EVs often do so out of concern for the environmental pollution caused by internal combustion engines, and a desire to protect the environment. The increasing cost of gasoline further motivates their shift towards EVs. An attractive trade-in program offering significant value for their current vehicles when purchasing an EV could heighten their interest. Additionally, the lower operational costs associated with charging EVs compared to refueling gasoline or diesel vehicles are frequently highlighted. However, the inconvenience of charging EVs remains a barrier. Taking the Indian market as a case study, the sluggish growth of the EV sector can largely be attributed to inadequate infrastructure and a scarcity of charging stations. This lack of facilities is a major deterrent for potential consumers. Moreover, there is a general lack of consumer awareness about the benefits and functionality of EVs. Improving infrastructure, along with robust publicity campaigns and promotional initiatives, are essential for increasing EV adoption in the Indian automotive market.
The study in [126] concluded that an understanding of alternative fuel vehicles is crucial for increasing their adoption in the global transportation sector. Consequently, the authors asserted that educating the public on the features and benefits of alternative fuel vehicles represents a sustainable solution to future environmental challenges. Shareeda et al. [127] noted that the successful adoption of EVs hinges on consumers’ comprehension of the advantages of switching to these vehicles. The awareness and knowledge of EVs are vital for fostering a sustainable demand [127]. Originally a concept from psychology, perceived risk pertains to the anticipated negative outcomes a consumer foresees when purchasing a specific product [128]. As technological innovations, EVs are frequently associated with risks related to safety, operation, functionality, and time [129,130]. The study in [131] recommended employing sensory stimulation to affect customers’ purchasing intentions. However, research indicates that test driving is unrelated to the intention to purchase EVs [132,133]. Nevertheless, data reveal that average values, such as price perception, knowledge about EVs, and overall attitude towards EVs, increase following an EV test drive. From this, it can be deduced that EV test drives have the potential to alter consumer perceptions of EV attributes and psychological factors, thereby promoting this type of vehicle.

7. Discussion and Future Challenges

The literature review on EVs sheds light on both the future developmental trends and the challenges facing this sector. Technologically, with growing environmental concerns and decreasing battery costs, the adoption rate of EVs is expected to rise. This anticipated increase will escalate the demand for charging infrastructure and spur further innovations in battery technology. Additionally, as more RESs are integrated into the power grid, EVs could play a pivotal role in balancing electricity supply and demand. This balancing act will necessitate the development of smart charging systems that align EV charging and discharging processes with the generation of renewable energy. Moreover, as the prevalence of EVs surges and batteries reach the end of their life cycle, it becomes imperative to develop sustainable and efficient battery recycling processes to mitigate the environmental impact of discarded batteries.
In terms of policy, the adoption of EVs will be significantly influenced by supportive policies and regulations that tackle key problems such as charging infrastructure development, battery recycling, and emissions standards. Policymakers are tasked with balancing the advantages of EVs against the challenges associated with transitioning away from fossil fuels. Robust policy support is crucial as it will not only encourage the adoption of EVs but also accelerate the pace of energy transformation, promoting a shift towards more sustainable energy sources.
From economic and social perspectives, the indirect impacts of EV technology encompass factors such as pricing, charging infrastructure, and battery technology advancements. Public awareness, demand preferences, and an understanding of the crucial relationship between EVs and energy transformation are key elements influencing the development of EVs. Both enterprises and governments should intensify efforts in public outreach and education to promote the adoption of EVs. This strategy will not only accelerate EV development but also facilitate broader energy transformation goals.
Although EVs offer significant potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality, thereby playing a crucial role in the energy transition, several challenges remain that must be overcome before they can serve as a viable alternative to traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. Addressing these challenges and securing the future success of EVs will necessitate sustained innovation and investment. This will involve not only technological advancements but also the creation of supportive policies and infrastructure to encourage widespread adoption.
To cope with these trends and challenges, the following directions and strategies can be considered for future EV development:
  • Technological innovation: Continuous investment and research and development of new technologies are essential, especially in battery technology, cruising range, charging speed and efficiency. It is also crucial to develop higher capacity, longer lasting, and lower cost batteries to make EVs more efficient and competitive.
  • Infrastructure construction: It is essential to increase investment in the construction of charging infrastructure, including adding charging stations, increasing charging speed, and improving the coverage and reliability of the charging network. In addition, the development of fast charging technology and wireless charging technology can be promoted to improve the convenience and efficiency of charging.
  • Policy support and economic incentives: The government can support the promotion and popularization of EVs through subsidies, tax exemptions, loans, and preferential policies. In addition, environmental regulations and emission standards are established to encourage automakers to produce more EVs and reduce emissions.
  • Education and publicity: Strengthening public education and publicity about EVs is essential. This includes improving consumers’ understanding and acceptance of EVs. Through publicity activities, exhibitions, and demonstration projects, we can demonstrate the advantages and sustainability of EVs to encourage more people to choose EVs.
  • International cooperation: Strengthening international cooperation in the field of EVs is vital. This involves sharing experiences, technology, and best practices. Through international cooperation, technological innovation and standardization can be accelerated and the interconnection of the EV market can be achieved.
  • Green energy integration: Strengthening the integration between EVs and renewable energy is crucial. This involves encouraging EVs to use renewable energy for charging, which contributes to achieving carbon neutrality goals and reducing reliance on traditional energy sources. Promoting the coordinated operation of EVs and renewable energy power generation systems can achieve an efficient use of energy and reduce carbon emissions.
  • Resource recycling and sustainability: Emphasizing the resource recycling and sustainability of EVs is crucial. This includes battery recycling and reuse, the green supply chain management of materials, and reducing environmental impact in the production process. Developing new recycling technologies and sustainable material options ensures environmental and sustainability compliance throughout the entire life cycle of EVs.
  • Vehicle intelligence and network technology application: Utilizing network and intelligent technology to promote connections and communications between vehicles and between vehicles and infrastructure is essential. This facilitates smarter charging management, route planning, and energy usage improvements, ultimately enhancing user experience and energy efficiency.
  • Establishment of multi-party partnerships: The development of the EV field requires the cooperation of different stakeholders, including governments, enterprises, academia, and social organizations. Establishing cross-sector and cross-industry partnerships is essential to jointly address technology, infrastructure, and environmental issues in the development of EVs.
In summary, the trends and challenges faced by the EV field in the future require efforts and cooperation from many parties to deal with them. Through efforts in technological innovation, infrastructure construction, policy support, international cooperation, and resource sustainability, the further development and promotion of EVs can be facilitated. This will help achieve the goals of energy transformation and environmental sustainability.

8. Conclusions

This study provides a comprehensive review of recent advancements in EVs and assesses their pivotal role in facilitating the energy transition, along with identifying prevailing challenges and prospective opportunities. Specifically, this study delineates the following areas:
  • Importance of energy transition: This research underscores the escalating urgency of climate change mitigation and energy security, prompting numerous countries to prioritize energy transition within their policy frameworks.
  • Role of EVs: This study emphasizes that EVs are crucial for the energy transition. They help decrease reliance on fossil fuels and contribute significantly to the reduction of CO2 emissions and other pollutants.
  • Technology and market trends: This review covers the latest innovations in EV technology, including advancements in battery, charging, and energy-efficiency technologies for EVs. Concurrently, it examines EV market trends, focusing on aspects such as sales growth, consumer demand, and competitive dynamics.
  • Challenges and future opportunities: This study identifies several challenges impeding EV adoption, such as inadequate charging infrastructure, battery lifespan constraints, cost considerations, and market receptivity. Furthermore, it highlights future prospects for EVs that support the energy transition, reduce carbon emissions, enhance air quality, and foster the development of a green economy.
In addition to the insights provided in this study, future research endeavors could focus on incorporating numerical data or percentages in comparative tables to offer a more quantitative perspective on the challenges and solutions in the development of electric vehicles. This would further enrich the analysis and contribute to a deeper understanding of the evolving landscape of EV technology.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, B.-H.J., N.-W.S. and C.-C.L.; investigation, data curation, software, writing—original draft preparation, B.-H.J. and C.-C.H.; validation, B.-H.J. and C.-C.H., N.-W.S. and C.-C.L.; writing—review and editing, N.-W.S. and C.-C.L.; visualization, N.-W.S.; resources, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, C.-C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was partially supported by the National Science and Technology Council, Taiwan, under Grant NSTC 112-2221-E-A49-116-MY3.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during and/or analyses during the current study are not publicly available due to confidentiality but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Energies 17 02906 g001
Figure 1. Future EV sales predicted by the British Petroleum Company (BP) and Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF). Source: BP Energy Outlook and Bloomberg NEF, 2019 [27,28].
Figure 1. Future EV sales predicted by the British Petroleum Company (BP) and Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF). Source: BP Energy Outlook and Bloomberg NEF, 2019 [27,28].
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Energies 17 02906 g002
Figure 2. National subsidies for EV purchase before and after economic stimulus measures, 2020. IEA. License: CC BY 4.0 [125].
Figure 2. National subsidies for EV purchase before and after economic stimulus measures, 2020. IEA. License: CC BY 4.0 [125].
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Table 1. Main problems impeding the development of EVs.
Table 1. Main problems impeding the development of EVs.
Main ProblemDescriptionReference
Insufficient charging infrastructureCharging infrastructure construction requires significant investment and time, resulting in slow development and an inability to keep pace with the rapidly expanding EV market.[29,30]
Battery technology EVs have limited cruising range and cannot meet the requirements for long-distance travel.[31,32]
Lithium reservesAccording to data released by Statista, global lithium reserves total 28 million tons. There is still huge uncertainty about whether the supply of lithium can meet the growing demand for EV batteries.[33]
Electric motor designThe main obstacles to the development of EVs are cost and driving range. Electric motors account for a large proportion of the cost of EVs, and their efficiency, power, and torque density directly affect the driving range. Motor systems need to overcome many challenges to address these issues.[34,35]
Power convertersPower converters directly impact the performance, efficiency and safety of EVs by converting electrical energy into the form required by the motor.[36]
Energy consumption and environmental impactElectric energy consumption and manufacturing processes generate a certain level of carbon emissions and environmental impact. Widespread EV charging could put additional stress on the grid, exacerbating energy consumption and environmental consequences.[37,38,39,40]
Cost and priceThe relatively high cost and pricing of EVs limits their widespread adoption and promotion. After-sales repair and maintenance costs for EVs are also relatively high.[41,42,43,44]
Table 2. Problems and solutions in the development of EVs.
Table 2. Problems and solutions in the development of EVs.
DimensionMain ProblemSolutionReference
TechnologyBattery technology
-
Developing battery technologies with high energy density, fast charging, and long life
-
Building the fast charging infrastructure
-
Improving battery management systems
[47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54]
PolicyCharging infrastructure
-
Support from government investment
[55,56,57,58,59]
EconomyFees and prices
-
Reducing battery costs and EV selling prices
-
Providing financial support and tax incentives
[60,61,62]
SocietyInformation and acceptance
-
Providing public education and outreach
-
Improving the image and quality of EVs
[63,64,65,66]
Table 3. Technical problems and solutions on the development of EVs.
Table 3. Technical problems and solutions on the development of EVs.
ItemMain ProblemSolutionReference
Battery technology
-
Limited range
-
Long charging time
-
High battery cost
-
Developing high energy density batteries
-
Developing fast charging technologies
-
Reducing battery costs
[47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,68]
Lithium reserves
-
Insufficient lithium production for EV growth
-
Lithium mining involves major environmental and human rights controversies
-
Mining and battery technology innovation
-
Improving lithium recovery efficiency
-
Developing DLE technology
[75]
Electric motor design
-
Thermal coupling of motor and converter
-
Influence of DC-link capacitance
-
Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
-
Heat sink design and cooling systems
-
Optimizing capacitance and capacitor selection
-
Shielding and EMI filters
[34,35]
Power converters
-
Converter integration position
-
Converter LC device volume optimization
-
Wide-band device applications
-
Converter housing design and converter positioning
-
Gate signal interleaving and carrier phase shifting
-
Wide-band semiconductor selection and driver design
[36]
Charging infrastructure
-
Uneven distribution of charging piles
-
Slow charging speed
-
Charging standards and interfaces are not unified
-
Rationalizing the layout of charging piles
-
Improving charging power and speed
-
Developing unified charging standards
-
Integration with renewable energy
[53,54,68,76,77]
EV management system
-
Energy management and improvements
-
Developing efficient energy management strategies
-
Developing fault diagnosis technology
-
Realizing vehicle interconnection and communication
[68,78,79,80,81,82,83]
Table 4. Policy problems and solutions on the development of EVs.
Table 4. Policy problems and solutions on the development of EVs.
ItemMain ProblemSolutionReference
Government investment support
-
Lack of investment funds
-
Unclear policy objectives
-
Market imbalance
-
Providing financial subsidies and loan support
-
Setting clear policy goals and timelines
-
Promoting public-private partnership model
[56,58,59,68]
Charging infrastructure construction
-
Lack of charging infrastructure
-
Charging standards and interfaces are not unified
-
Uneven distribution of charging piles
-
Providing financial and land support
-
Developing unified charging standards and specifications
-
Incentivizing the construction and development of charging piles
[56,58,59,68]
Incentives and tax benefits
-
EVs are expensive
-
High charging costs
-
Imbalanced market competition
-
Providing EV purchase subsidies and tax reduction policies
-
Reducing electricity costs and charging fees
-
Developing promotional policies and reduce car purchase taxes
[56,58,68,73]
Public education and awareness
-
Lack of knowledge about EVs
-
Doubts about EV performance and reliability
-
Lack of consumer support
-
Carrying out promotional and educational activities
-
Providing relevant information and reliability guarantee
-
Adding EV test drive activities
[68]
Table 5. Economic problems and solutions in the development of EVs.
Table 5. Economic problems and solutions in the development of EVs.
ItemMain ProblemSolutionReference
Initial investment cost
-
EVs are expensive
-
The construction cost of charging infrastructure is high
-
Batteries are expensive
-
Providing car purchase subsidies and tax reduction policies
-
Reducing charging infrastructure construction costs
-
Reducing battery production and material costs
[61,73,120,121,122]
Operating and maintenance costs
-
High charging costs
-
Battery life and replacement costs
-
Expensive maintenance and repairs
-
Reducing charging fees and electricity costs
-
Extended battery life and warranty plans
[120]
Fuel cost
-
Unstable prices for conventional fuels
-
Charging costs are related to electricity prices
-
Charges for charging infrastructure
-
Developing renewable energy and energy storage technologies
[120]
Second-hand
market value
-
EVs depreciate quickly
-
The second-hand market is not active
-
Battery value decreases
-
Offering buyback and exchange programs
-
Increasing used car sales channels
[123,124]
Table 6. Social problems and solutions on the development of EVs.
Table 6. Social problems and solutions on the development of EVs.
ItemMain ProblemSolutionReference
Charging convenience
-
Lack of charging facilities at places of residence and work
-
Charging time is too long
-
Poor experience using charging piles
-
Providing convenient charging facilities where people live and work
-
Developing fast charging technology
-
Improving the user experience of charging piles
[73]
Vehicle reliability and performance
-
EV technology is not yet mature
-
Battery life and charging efficiency
-
Vehicle repair and failure rates
-
Improving the reliability and performance of EVs
[44]
Consumer acceptance
-
Prejudice and distrust of EVs
-
Limited choice of car models and styles
-
Consumer needs and preferences
-
Improving consumer education and publicity about EVs
-
Expanding the choice of models and styles of EVs
-
Understanding and meeting consumer needs and preferences
[74,79,122]
Social equity
-
Uneven popularity of EVs
-
Unbalanced charging infrastructure
-
Impact on low-income groups
-
Promoting the popularity of EVs among different social groups
-
Providing fair charging infrastructure construction
-
Developing social equity policies and subsidy measures
[74,122]
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Jiang, B.-H.; Hsu, C.-C.; Su, N.-W.; Lin, C.-C. A Review of Modern Electric Vehicle Innovations for Energy Transition. Energies 2024, 17, 2906. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122906

AMA Style

Jiang B-H, Hsu C-C, Su N-W, Lin C-C. A Review of Modern Electric Vehicle Innovations for Energy Transition. Energies. 2024; 17(12):2906. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122906

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jiang, Bi-Hai, Chao-Chung Hsu, Nai-Wei Su, and Chun-Cheng Lin. 2024. "A Review of Modern Electric Vehicle Innovations for Energy Transition" Energies 17, no. 12: 2906. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122906

APA Style

Jiang, B. -H., Hsu, C. -C., Su, N. -W., & Lin, C. -C. (2024). A Review of Modern Electric Vehicle Innovations for Energy Transition. Energies, 17(12), 2906. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122906

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