Prospects of Controlled Auto-Ignition Based Thermal Propulsion Units for Modern Gasoline Vehicles
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Refreshes and re-contextualises the benefits and challenges of CAI for the current mobility landscape where powertrain electrification is becoming increasingly common.
- Offers a consistent and up-to-date characterisation for various CAI embodiments.
- Discusses opportunities for addressing CAI control challenges and improving system efficiency in CAI TPU-based HEVs through the co-development of thermal and electrical components.
2. Controlled Auto-Ignition
2.1. The Thermodynamic Case for Gasoline CAI
- A decrease in heat transfer losses because of lower temperatures of cylinder contents [+].
- An increase in specific heat ratio of the combusting mixture, which allows for more useful work to be harvested per unit expansion of the expanding gases [+].
- A decrease in the useful energy (exergy) lost with exhaust gases [+].
- An increase in combustion irreversibility because of lower combustion temperatures. For practical combustion systems, these losses range between 20 and 25% (up to 32% according to [35]) and are difficult to ‘engineer our way out of’ [−].
- Allowing thermodynamically efficient dilute and/or lean combustion;
- Improving combustion efficiency through multi-site AI;
- Reducing in-cylinder turbulence requirements to allow the design of efficient air flow passages;
- Using a volatile, low-reactivity fuel to ease the formation of a vaporised fuel-air mixture.
2.2. Effects on Emissions
2.2.1. NOx (↓)
2.2.2. Soot, Smoke, Particulate Matter (↓,↑)
2.2.3. Hydrocarbons (↑)
2.2.4. CO (↑)
2.2.5. Effects on Aftertreatment Systems
2.3. An Overview of CAI Challenges
3. CAI Characterisation and Development
3.1. Strategy 1: Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)
3.1.1. Mixture Preparation
3.1.2. HCCI Limits
- Help control the onset of combustion by providing ignition triggers to reduce the reliance on chemical kinetics and make combustion take place stably with low variability;
- Introduce stratification in the mixture to have the mixture be ‘pre-mixed enough’ [64] instead of being perfectly mixed to spread out energy release and moderate pressure-rise rates.
3.2. Strategy 2a: Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PCCI)
Fuel Injection
3.3. Strategy 2b: Partially Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PPCCI)
PPCCI Limits
- Using a spark or a glow plug to assist with the combustion of the stratified mixture created by a late injection event [68]. This is different from spark-assisted compression ignition because ignition phasing is controlled by the late injection event and not the spark discharge.
- Avoiding low load operation by deactivating cylinders in multi-cylinder engines, e.g., in Cracknell et al. [68] one of the four cylinders was deactivated at low loads, and up to a 33% improvement in fuel consumption was reported.
3.4. Strategy 3: Spark Assisted Compression Ignition (SACI)
3.5. Strategy 4: SACI-PPCCI Hybrid
Operating Strategies
- SACI alone cannot adequately extend the CAI operating envelope. Assistance is needed from PPCCI to provide stable, lean combustion across a wide operating range.
- SACI-PPCCI hybrid engines allow for using relatively high compression ratios because of the availability of two ignition control knobs (spark discharge and fuel stratification) that can provide effective PRR moderation.
- HCCI can serve as a stable low- to medium-load combustion mode, and operation can be switched to SI operation at very high loads and cold engine conditions.
- Adjusting iEGR to the eEGR ratio using various valve overlap strategies is an effective way of stabilising SACI operation and extending its load limits.
- Greater in-cylinder flow control and turbulence, relative to non-SI CAI engines, might be needed to stabilise and accelerate combustion during the deflagrative stage.
3.6. Strategy 5: Gasoline Compression Ignition (GCI) [Redundant]
3.7. Strategy 6: Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI)
4. Controlling CAI Combustion
4.1. Exhaust Gas Recirculation
- Charge heating—combustion products by virtue of their temperature can increase the temperature of the cylinder gases.
- Dilution effect—combustion products reduce the amount of oxygen in the trapped mixture by replacing air.
- Heat capacity effect—combustion products contain CO2 and H2O, which have relatively high heat capacities compared to that of O2. Hence, the trapped mixture’s heat capacity can increase, and its ratio of specific heat can decrease.
- Chemical effect—partially oxidised products of combustion, e.g., CO, HC, or NO can participate in chemical reactions in the trapped mixture.
iEGR Strategies via Variable Valve Actuation
- Negative Valve Overlap (NVO): Exhaust valves are closed before TDC, often accompanied by a late opening of the intake valves, to retain more combustion products than would have been retained with exhaust valve closure at/after TDC (Figure 10a). The residual gases are recompressed during the latter part of the exhaust stroke, which increases their temperature and can offer AI benefits NVO periods ranging between 60 and 220°CA were used in Borgqvist et al. [76] and between 114 and 136°CA in Xie et al. [65]. Some of the fuel’s energy can be released during the NVO period by injecting the fuel during or before it if the cylinder conditions are conducive for low-temperature heat release [76,100]. With NVO strategies, a pumping loss penalty is incurred because of recompression. These losses increase at higher loads because of higher expansion pressures [65]. Therefore, NVO might be preferable only at lower loads, where it provides hotter iEGR and greater thermal stratification [54].
- Exhaust Rebreathing via Exhaust Valve Reopening (EVR): To reduce pumping losses incurred because of NVO, recompression can be avoided by having a second exhaust valve opening event, typically during the intake stroke (Figure 10b). Some exhaust gases from the exhaust port would thus be readmitted into the cylinder and heat the fresh charge. Because of the recirculation of the exhaust gases, the charge heating potential of EVR iEGR is lower than that of NVO iEGR. Sellnau et al. [39] used exhaust rebreathing to extend their PPCCI engine’s low load performance and also to elevate exhaust temperatures to improve aftertreatment system efficiency.
- Exhaust Rebreathing via Positive Valve Overlap (PVO): In this approach, intake and exhaust valves are opened simultaneously beyond the overlap periods typical of automotive engines (Figure 10c). Adequate iEGR for CAI can be retained through this approach if intake and exhaust valve timings, about or on one side of TDC, are selected smartly [65]. Pumping losses are lower than for NVO with this rebreathing method as well, which makes it promising for high-load CAI operation. Xie et al. [65] realised CAI using PVO in an SACI engine. SACI engines typically require relatively less thermal assistance for AI because of the availability of a positive ignition source in the form of a spark.
- Exhaust Rebreathing via Late Exhaust Valve Closing (LEVC): In this exhaust rebreathing strategy, exhaust valves close after TDC, and some exhaust gases are rebreathed from the exhaust port during the expansion stroke (Figure 10d) [54]. This method produces relatively high levels of thermal stratification but not as high as NVO. It also has lower pumping losses than NVO.
4.2. Cycle Type
4.3. Low Load Avoidance
- Cylinder deactivation at low loads to force the active cylinders to operate at higher pressures and temperatures (i.e., at higher loads) [68]. Engine cylinders can be deactivated by closing valves [54], stopping fuel injection and spark plug firing [1]. In a CVVL-capable engine study, additional 6–10%-point fuel consumption benefits were realised through cylinder deactivation [54].
- Load levelling via powertrain electrification to shield the engine from low-load operation and transient changes in driving power demand by providing propulsion (entirely or partly) via the electric traction motor. This is discussed in more detail in Section 5.
4.4. Boosting
4.5. Fuel Injection
4.6. Ignition Assistance
4.7. Charge Heating
4.8. Engine Cooling
4.9. Compression Ratio
4.10. Altering Mixture Reactivity
- Introducing a high reactivity fuel in a low-reactivity fuel mixture to promote AI when desired. This is the RCCI approach.
- Using high-ON fuels, such as ethanol, to prolong ignition delay and thus allow operation at high compression ratios. Christensen et al. [107] realised stable CAI, albeit at relatively low loads, using ethanol in an engine with a very high compression ratio of 21:1.
5. Opportunities for CAI-Based HPS
- Operating Map Expansion: Using electronically actuated/controlled levers to increase CAI efficiency and extend the CAI engine’s operating map. This could include the use of systems, such as electronic valve actuation, electric heating, and e-boost systems, to remove constraints to CAI operation at limits of CAI operability. Indirect references to this approach have been found in the CAI literature [21,39,41], but the authors have not come across any studies dedicatedly employing this approach, possibly because of the associated increase in cost and system complexity.
- Load Levelling: Using EMs to provide or absorb torque to or from the engine to limit its operation to CAI-operating regions or, in the case of multi-combustion-mode engines, maximise high-efficiency CAI operation. For CAI TPUs, multi-mode combustion strategies are to be expected, e.g., HCCI-SI [120], SACI-SI [84], RCCI-CDC [121], HCCI-SI-RCCI [122]. Variants of load-levelling approaches that maximise engine operation in high-efficiency regions, e.g., by traversing the optimal engine operation line, are common among all classes of HPS, CAI-based or otherwise. For CAI HPS, load levelling can be achieved implicitly by pairing appropriately sized engines and EMs in suitable hybrid train architectures to maximise the CAI operation of the engine, e.g., in a parallel HPS with a naturally aspirated CAI TPU that has a part load CAI operating region (similar to that of the baseline CAI engine), and frequent CAI operation would be realised during urban driving [121]. Additional explicit instructions can also be sent by the supervisory control module to prioritise engine operation in CAI regions by using electric and absorption drive in power-split or parallel architectures [120] or having an energy management strategy for a series HPS that prioritises engine operation at CAI points [51].
- Torque Tracking: Engaging EMs to maintain smooth output torque during combustion mode changes to ensure smooth drivability. Combustion mode transitions require adjustments of the in-cylinder conditions, which are limited by transport delays and actuator response times and can lead to suboptimal energy release cycles and emission excursions in this period. Torque tracking is commonly used to complement load-levelling supervisory control strategies [84].
5.1. CAI HPS Studies
5.1.1. HCCI
5.1.2. SACI
5.1.3. PPCCI
5.1.4. RCCI
5.2. CAI HPS Design Considerations
5.2.1. CAI Mode
5.2.2. HPS Architecture
5.2.3. Electrification Level
5.2.4. Engine Size
5.2.5. Energy Management
- Extending the CAI engine operating range by using electrically actuated controllers will increase TPU cost and complexity, which might not be justified by the efficiency and emission improvements and might not even be needed, as discussed above.
- Electrification can assist in ensuring smooth combustion-mode transitions through torque tracking [84]. Additionally, energy management strategies can be devised to ensure compliance with drivability and NVH constraints, e.g., limiting engine [122] and electric drive [121] speeds, and momentarily (for 2–3 cycles) enriching cylinder charge during combustion-mode shifting to smooth transitions and avoid misfires [122].
6. Summary and Recommendations
6.1. CAI Advantages
- CAI can improve thermal efficiency by allowing thermodynamically efficient diluted and/or lean combustion.
- CAI can improve combustion efficiency through multi-site auto-ignition.
- Combustion stabilisation and acceleration realised through CAI can reduce the need for in-cylinder turbulence for lean and diluted engine operation. Hence, air flow passages and valves that improve volumetric efficiency can be designed, and combustion chamber designs can be simplified.
- Gasoline, because of its low reactivity (high ON) and high volatility, has inherent advantages as a CAI fuel. Its AI and vaporisation attributes facilitate the preparation of a well-mixed vaporised fuel-air mixture and reduce the likelihood of premature AI. This means that high-compression-ratio engines can be designed to achieve diesel-like efficiency, while using relatively low injection pressures.
- CAI can potentially reduce cylinder-out NOx and PM emissions to levels where exhaust aftertreatment devices might not be needed. Moreover, if incomplete oxidation pathways, e.g., low load points, can be avoided, CO and HC emissions can be kept low as well.
6.2. CAI Challenges
- The volumetric nature of CAI combustion can yield unacceptably high pressure rise rates, which can act as a high load limit. Various CAI variants try to moderate energy release by introducing chemical and thermal heterogeneities, often with accompanying efficiency and emission penalties.
- Very diluted and lean combustion can lower exhaust gas temperature and enthalpy, which can reduce the system’s level efficiency and present emission after-treatment challenges.
- For a single fuel (gasoline), mixture reactivity can be altered to a limited extent (via leaning and dilution), which in the absence of expensive control actuators, such as CVVL, high pressure direct injectors, e-boost, and variable compression ratio systems limit CAI operation to moderate load levels.
- Other challenges to gasoline CAI reported in the literature are cold start and idle combustion, low load stability, acceptable transient operation, hardware (combustion chamber and injection system) optimisation, and boosting at high EGR levels [37].
- The challenge of reliably controlling the onset and phasing of combustion has been largely addressed by using chemical (rich late injection) or thermal (spark discharge) ignition triggers.
6.3. CAI Characterisation
- Premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI);
- Partially premixed charge compression ignition (PPCCI);
- Spark-assisted compression ignition (SACI);
- SACI-PPCCI hybrid;
- Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI).
6.4. CAI TPUs for Hybrid Propulsion Systems
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
AI | auto-ignition |
BEV | battery electric vehicle |
BMEP | brake mean effective pressure |
bTDC | before top dead centre |
CA | crank angle |
CAI | controlled auto-ignition |
CA50 | 50% fuel mass fraction burned CA location |
CDC | conventional diesel combustion |
CI | compression ignition |
CN | cetane number |
CVVL | continuous variable valve lift |
DI | direct injection |
eEGR | external exhaust gas recirculation |
EGR | exhaust gas recirculation |
EM | electric machine |
EVR | exhaust valve reopening |
GCI | gasoline compression ignition |
GDI | gasoline direct injection |
HC | hydrocarbon |
HCCI | homogeneous charge compression ignition |
HEV | hybrid electric vehicle |
HL | high load (limit) |
HPS | hybrid propulsion system |
HS | high speed (limit) |
HRR | heat release rate |
iEGR | internal exhaust gas recirculation |
IMEP | indicated mean effective pressure |
IMEPn | net IMEP |
BMEP | brake mean effective pressure |
LL | low load (limit) |
LS | low speed (limit) |
NVH | noise, vibration, and harshness |
NVO | negative valve overlap |
ON | octane number |
P0-P4 | parallel HPS configurations |
PCC | pre combustion chamber |
PCCI | premixed charge compression ignition |
PFI | port fuel injection |
PM | particulate matter |
PPCCI | partially premixed charge compression ignition |
PRR | pressure rise rate |
PVO | positive valve overlap |
RCCI | reactivity controlled compression ignition |
REEV | range extended electric vehicle |
RON | research octane number |
RPM | revolutions per minute |
SACI | spark-assisted compression ignition |
SCR | selective catalytic reduction |
SI | spark ignition |
SoC | state of charge |
SUV | sports utility vehicle |
TDC | top dead centre |
TWC | three-way catalyst |
VVT | variable valve timing |
Appendix A. Summary of Surveyed GCI Articles
Ref. | Technology | Pin (bar) | Tin (°C) | Pinj (bar) | Positive Ignition | iEGR Strategy | Number of Injections | eEGR | Net Indicated Efficiency (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2007 [69] | PPCCI [Shell, KTH] CR: 14:1 | 2 | 40 | 1100 | 2: compression + ~ TDC | Yes | 45–53.5 1 | ||
2013 [76] | PPCCI [Lund] CR: 16.5:1 | Amb | Amb | 500 | Glow plug | NVO, Exh RB | 2: injection during NVO + main | 32–40 | |
2018 [39] | PPCCI (GDCI) [Delphi] CR: 16:1 | TC + small clutched super charger | 40–80 | 350–500 | Exh RB low loads CVVL-poor boost | 2–3: intake + compression | Yes | 38–46 2 | |
2018 [59] | PPCCI (2SC) [Achates] CR: 18.5:1 | 1.12–2.3 | 45 | 326–1303 | Scavenging gas exchange | 2: compression (~45 and 8°CA bTDC) | Yes | 45–52 | |
2019 [133] | PPCCI [UNSW] CR: 17.7 | 1 | 80 | 500 | 2: 170, 16–0°CA bTDC | 46–50 | |||
2020 [68] | PPCCI + SACI (GCI) [Shell, PSA] CR: 16:1 | Amb | Amb | 398–567 | Low load SI assist | 2–4: compression + expansion | Yes | 28–45 2 | |
2020 [41] | PPCCI (GCI) [UNSW] CR: 17.7:1 | 1–1.3 (e-boost) | 80 | 500 | 3: compression (170 to 3°CA bTDC) | Yes | 48–52 |
Ref. | Technology | Pin (bar) | Tin (°C) | Pinj (bar) | Positive Ignition | iEGR Strategy | Number of Injections | eEGR | Net Indicated Efficiency (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2006 [53] | SACI + PPCCI [Nissan] CR: 15.01:1 | 1–1.5 | 27–130 | 30–50 | Spark Plug | 2: intake + around TDC | - | ||
2013 [63] | SACI [Ann Arbor] CR: 12.5:1 | Amb | 45 | 100 | Spark Plug | NVO | 1: 330°CA bTDC | Yes | 42 |
2013 [65] | SACI [Brunel] CR: 10.66 | Amb | 25 | 3 (PFI) | Spark Plug | Exh RB via PVO | PFI | Yes | 29.5–31.7 1 |
2021 [84] | SACI [Clemson] CR: 18:1 | Spark Plug | Yes | ||||||
2020 [47,48] | SACI + PPCCI [Mazda] CR: 16:1 15:1 (e-SKX) | Small clutched super charger | Amb | 500 [30] | Spark Plug | VVT–uses PVO to scavenge hot residuals + strong swirl to enhance vaporization | 2: intake + compression (before spark) | Yes | - |
2020 [85] | SACI + PPCCI [Sandia] CR: 12:1 | Amb | 30–100 | 170 | Spark Plug | Low RGF 4–6% | 2–4: 1–3 during intake + 1 3°CA before spark | 25–38 |
Appendix B. Overview of Hybrid Propulsion System Design
- -
- Engine drive: only the engine provides propulsive force;
- -
- Electric drive: only electric motor provides propulsive force;
- -
- Hybrid drive: both engine and electric motor provide propulsive force (also known as torque assist);
- -
- Power split mode: engine provides propulsive force while also charging the battery;
- -
- Absorption mode: electric generator absorbs engine power and charging the battery.
Appendix B.1. HPS Architecture
Appendix B.1.1. Series Hybrid
Appendix B.1.2. Parallel Hybrid
Appendix B.1.3. Power-Split Hybrid
Appendix B.2. Electrification Level
Appendix B.2.1. Micro Hybrid
Appendix B.2.2. Mild Hybrid
Appendix B.2.3. Full Hybrid
Appendix B.2.4. Plug-In Hybrid
Appendix B.3. Energy Management
- Efficiencies of energy transformation and transmission, e.g., engine drive efficiency, electric drive efficiency, engine idling/shutdown/restart penalty.
- Emission levels and exhaust aftertreatment temperature, e.g., avoid running the engine on a low temperature combustion mode if exhaust temperature is below the required temperature limit as needed by the aftertreatment system [128].
- Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) and drivability considerations, especially at low speed and during combustion mode transitions.
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SI Inefficiencies | Can Gasoline CAI Help? | Potential Challenges |
---|---|---|
Low compression ratios
| Yes, CAI is moderated/partially controlled knock |
|
Throttle
| Possibly, if load is controlled via CVVL and DI, and engine runs at wide open throttle. |
|
Stoichiometric combustion
| Yes, CAI encourages lean and diluted combustion, which lowers cylinder-out NOx emissions. |
|
Flame propagation combustion
| Yes, through volumetric combustion. |
|
Air-fuel mixture compression instead of just air
| Likely not, unless engine is operated in a diesel-like CI mode. |
|
Carbon-intense fuel processing (21.5 vs. 16.8 gCO2,eq/MJ compared to diesel [10]) | Unlikely, it would require the revision of regulations to allow low RON fuels. |
|
Diesel Inefficiencies | Can Gasoline CAI Help? | Potential Challenges |
‘Diesel’
| Yes, with gasoline CAI. |
|
Locally rich and diffusive combustion
| Yes, if a well-mixed, lean mixture is burned. To a lesser extent with DI CAI. |
|
Relatively slow mixing-controlled combustion phase. | Yes, through the volumetric combustion of a well-mixed mixture. |
|
Expensive after-treatment systems. | Yes, by lowering cylinder-out NOx and PM emissions. Aftertreatment of CO and HC is easier and less costly. |
|
Expensive high-pressure fuel injectors. | Yes, gasoline is easier to vaporise, and its AI resistance allows more time for mixing. |
|
Strategy | Fuel | Injection | Combusting Mixture | Spark Plug | Combustion Timing Control |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SI (PFI) | Gasoline | PFI | Homogenous | Yes | Spark timing |
SI (DI) | Gasoline | DI typically during intake | Stratified | Yes | Spark timing |
CI | Diesel | DI during compression | Highly stratified | No | Injection timing |
HCCI | Gasoline | PFI or DI during intake | Homogenous | No | Chemical kinetics (AI chemistry) |
PCCI | Diesel | 1–2 DI during compression | Partially mixed background, possibly with stratified injection region | No | Chemical kinetics and/or last injection timing |
PPCCI | Gasoline | DI during intake/compression + second DI late into compression | Homogenous background charge, stratified injection region | No | Last injection timing |
RCCI | Gasoline + Diesel | PFI (Gasoline) + DI (Diesel) around TDC | No | Diesel injection timing | |
SACI | Gasoline | DI during intake | Homogenous | Yes | Spark timing |
SACI-PPCCI | Gasoline | DI during intake/compression + second DI late into compression | Homogenous background charge, stratified injection region | Yes | Spark and last injection timing |
Control Parameter/Actuator | Effects/Benefits | Implementation Strategies | Response Rate |
---|---|---|---|
iEGR |
|
| Fast |
| Slow | ||
eEGR |
|
| Slow |
Cycle type |
| Fast | |
Operating load |
|
| Interm. |
| Interm. | ||
Intake pressure |
|
| Slow |
| Interm. | ||
Fuel injection |
|
| Interm. |
| Fast | ||
Ignition assistance |
|
| Fast |
| Interm. | ||
Intake air heating |
|
| Slow |
Intake air cooling |
|
| Slow |
Engine cooling |
|
| Slow |
| Fast | ||
Geometric compression ratio |
| Interm. | |
Mixture reactivity |
| Interm. |
Study | CAI Strategy | Hybrid Architecture | Hybridisation Level | Synergy Strategy | Max Efficiency Improvement * (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2010 [51] | HCCI-SI | Parallel, series, power-split | Micro/mild (parallel), full, plug-in | Load levelling | 15 |
2011 [120] | HCCI-SI | Parallel, power-split | Mild, medium | Load levelling | 20 |
2013 [124] | HCCI-SI | Parallel | Mild | Load levelling | 12 |
2014 [125] | HCCI | Series (REV) | Full | Load levelling (single level) | 12 |
2021 [84] | SACI-SI | Parallel | Mild (P0), medium (P2) | Torque tracking + load levelling | 5 |
2019 [126] | PPCCI | Series | Full | Load levelling (multiple levels) | To diesel levels |
2020 [10] | PPCCI | Series, parallel, power-split | Mild (P0, P2), full | Load levelling | - |
2015 [128] | RCCI | Series | Full | Load levelling (multiple levels) | - |
2017 [122] | HCCI-SI-RCCI | Series | Full | Load levelling (multiple levels) | 11 |
2018 [43] | RCCI | Series | Full | Load levelling (multiple levels) | - |
2019 [121] | RCCI-CDC | Parallel | Mild (P0), full (P2) | Load levelling | To diesel levels |
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Bajwa, A.U.; Leach, F.C.P.; Davy, M.H. Prospects of Controlled Auto-Ignition Based Thermal Propulsion Units for Modern Gasoline Vehicles. Energies 2023, 16, 3887. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093887
Bajwa AU, Leach FCP, Davy MH. Prospects of Controlled Auto-Ignition Based Thermal Propulsion Units for Modern Gasoline Vehicles. Energies. 2023; 16(9):3887. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093887
Chicago/Turabian StyleBajwa, Abdullah U., Felix C. P. Leach, and Martin H. Davy. 2023. "Prospects of Controlled Auto-Ignition Based Thermal Propulsion Units for Modern Gasoline Vehicles" Energies 16, no. 9: 3887. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093887
APA StyleBajwa, A. U., Leach, F. C. P., & Davy, M. H. (2023). Prospects of Controlled Auto-Ignition Based Thermal Propulsion Units for Modern Gasoline Vehicles. Energies, 16(9), 3887. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093887