A Review of Pumped Hydro Storage Systems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background and Significance of Pumped Hydro Storage Energy Systems
Brief Historical Review
1.2. Scope and Objective of the Review
2. Characteristics and Aspects of Pumped Hydro Storage Systems
2.1. Characteristics and Uses of PHS
- Energy storage: PHS systems provide large-scale energy storage capabilities, making them ideal for storing excess energy generated during periods of low demand and releasing it when demand peaks.
- Grid stability: By rapidly responding to fluctuations in supply and demand, PHS systems help maintain grid stability and avoid power outages or blackouts.
- Integration of renewables: The ability to store and release energy on demand makes PHS systems well-suited for accommodating the intermittency of renewable energy sources, thereby supporting their wider adoption.
- Load balancing: PHS systems aid in load balancing by shifting electricity generation from periods of low demand to periods of high demand, improving the overall efficiency of the power grid.
- Longevity and low environmental impact: PHS systems are characterized by long operational lifetimes and a relatively low environmental impact compared to other energy storage technologies, making them a sustainable option for power grids.
2.1.1. Ancillary Services of PHS
2.1.2. Integrated Pumped Storage with Renewable Energy Sources
2.2. Types of Pumped Hydro Storage Systems
2.2.1. Storage Size
2.2.2. Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Pumped and Pump-Back Storage Systems
2.2.3. Reversible Pump-Turbines and Generators
3. Environmental Impacts and Sustainability Considerations
3.1. Land Use and Ecosystem Alterations
3.2. Water Quality and Sedimentation
3.3. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
3.4. Socioeconomic Implications
4. Policies, Regulations, and Incentives
4.1. International and National Policies
4.1.1. Global Energy Policies and the Role of Pumped Hydro Storage
4.1.2. European Union Policies and Initiatives
4.1.3. United States Policies and Incentives
4.1.4. Asian Policies and Strategies
4.1.5. China Policies and Strategies
4.2. Possible Policy Revisions to Facilitate PHS Growth
- Regulatory frameworks: Outdated regulatory structures may not adequately recognize the benefits of energy storage or may even inadvertently create barriers to the development of PHS projects. Regulatory reforms are needed to ensure that PHS can participate fairly in electricity markets and be compensated for the services they provide.
- Market design and incentives: Electricity markets should be designed to properly value the flexibility and grid services that PHS can provide, such as frequency regulation, voltage support, and load shifting. Incentives, such as tax credits, subsidies, or grants, can help overcome the high upfront costs of PHS projects and facilitate investment. However, in many cases, it is reported that climate policy may not incentivize storage utilization, especially when firms that hold a dominant position in storage operation own a limited portfolio of generation assets [85].
- Environmental and social concerns: PHS projects can have significant environmental and social impacts, such as land use changes, water resource management issues, and the displacement of local communities. Policymakers need to develop frameworks that carefully consider and mitigate these impacts while still promoting the development of PHS.
- Integration with renewable energy policies: As the penetration of variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar increases, PHS can play a crucial role in managing their intermittency. Policymakers should consider PHS as an integral part of their renewable energy strategies, ensuring that support policies and targets are aligned with the need for energy storage.
- Permitting and approval processes: Lengthy and complex permitting and approval processes can hinder the development of PHS projects. Streamlining these processes and providing clear guidelines can help to reduce project delays and uncertainties for developers.
- Research, development, and innovation: Policymakers should encourage research and development in PHS technologies to drive innovation and reduce costs. This can be achieved via funding programs; demonstration projects; and collaboration between the government, industry, and research institutions.
- International collaboration: Cross-border PHS projects can provide significant benefits in terms of resource sharing and regional grid stability. Policymakers should work with their counterparts in neighboring countries to develop collaborative frameworks and harmonize regulations to facilitate such projects.
4.3. Proposed Policies for Shaping PHS Financial Incentives and Market Factors
5. Economic Analysis and Feasibility
5.1. Capital Costs and Investment Requirements
5.2. Operation and Maintenance Costs
5.3. Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE)
5.4. Return on Investment and Payback Periods
6. Statistical Analysis of Pumped Hydro Power Systems
6.1. Time Evolution of Installed Power
6.1.1. Global Trends and Patterns
6.1.2. Aggregated Sums per Continent
6.2. Aggregated Sums per Country
6.2.1. Regional and Country-Level Perspectives
6.2.2. Top Countries by Installed Power
6.3. Historical Cost Trends
6.3.1. Effect of Power and Year of Commission to the Cost per Watt
6.3.2. Effect of Operational Status on Cost per Watt
6.4. Turbine Types and Characteristics
6.5. Head Difference and Reservoir Volume Analysis
7. Technological Advancements and Innovations
8. Challenges and Opportunities
8.1. Environmental Challenges
8.2. Social Challenges
8.3. Opportunities for Future Growth and Expansion
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations (Alphabetically)
DPHS | Daily Hydro Energy Storage System |
EU | European Union |
GHE | Geothermal Heat Exchangers |
GHG | Greenhouse Gas |
PHS | Hydro Energy Storage System |
HPHS | Hourly Pumped Hydro Storage |
IEA | International Energy Agency |
KPIs | Key Performance Indicators |
LCOE | Levelized Cost of Energy |
LCOE | Levelized Cost of Storage |
PCS | Power Conversion System |
PAPHS | Pluriannual Hydro Energy Storage System |
RES | Renewable Energy System |
SDG | Sustainable Development Goal |
SPHS | Seasonal Pumped Hydro Storage |
UPHS | Underground Pumped Hydro Storage |
UN | United Nations |
VRES | Variable Renewable Energy System |
WPHS | Weekly Pumped Hydro Storage |
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Benefit | Corresponding Characteristics |
---|---|
Energy Storage | Discharge duration at rated power: 1–24+ h Power capacity: 10–4000 MW Energy storage capacity: MWh to 100 GWh |
Grid Stability | Response time: minimal |
Integration of Renewables | Round-trip efficiency: 70–85% Self-discharge: generally negligible |
Load Balancing | Discharge duration at rated power: 1–24+ h Power capacity: 10–4000 MW |
Longevity and Low Environmental Impact | Lifetime: 40–60+ years Round-trip efficiency: 70–85% Self-discharge: generally negligible |
Component | 100 MW System | 1000 MW System |
---|---|---|
Duration (hrs) | 10 | 10 |
Labor-related fixed O&M (USD/kW-year) | 15.7 | 3.1 |
Parts-related fixed O&M (USD/kW-year) | 5.6 | 5.6 |
Refurbishment-related fixed O&M (USD/kW-year) | 9.0 | 9.0 |
Total fixed O&M (USD/kW-year) | 30.4 | 17.8 |
Percentage of capital cost (%) | 2.0 | 1.4 |
Continent | In Operation | Under Construction | Total |
---|---|---|---|
Asia | 77,154 | 60,903 | 138,057 |
Europe | 2480 | 25,308 | 27,788 |
North America | 900 | 13,731 | 14,631 |
Africa | 2750 | 2797 | 5547 |
Australia | 2250 | 1800 | 4050 |
Total | 85,534 | 105,289 | 190,823 |
Country | In Operation | Under Construction | Total | Refs in Operation | Refs under Construction |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
China | 40,648 | 69,550 | 110,198 | [95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121] | [102,111,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159] [141,146,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191] |
Japan | 15,307 | 2820 | 18,127 | [192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205] | [206] |
USA | 13,731 | 0 | 13,731 | [207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216] | |
Italy | 4200 | 0 | 4200 | [217,218,219,220] | |
Australia | 1800 | 2250 | 4050 | [221] | [222] |
Ukraine | 2531 | 900 | 3431 | [223,224] | |
Taiwan | 2608 | 0 | 2608 | [225,226] | |
United Kingdom | 2500 | 0 | 2500 | [227] | |
Egypt | 0 | 2400 | 2400 | [228] | |
South Africa | 2332 | 0 | 2332 | [229,230] | |
India | 0 | 2200 | 2200 | [231] | [232,233] |
Germany | 2105 | 0 | 2105 | [234,235] | |
Switzerland | 1000 | 900 | 1900 | [236] | |
France | 1800 | 0 | 1800 | [237,238] | |
Spain | 1770 | 0 | 1770 | [239,240,241] | |
Serbia | 1300 | 0 | 1300 | [242] | |
Luxembourg | 1300 | 0 | 1300 | [243] | |
Russia | 1216 | 0 | 1216 | [244] | |
Vietnam | 0 | 1200 | 1200 | [245] | |
Czech Republic | 1175 | 0 | 1175 | ||
Belgium | 1164 | 0 | 1164 | [246] | |
Iran | 1040 | 0 | 1040 | [247] | |
Indonesia | 0 | 1040 | 1040 | [248] | |
South Korea | 1000 | 0 | 1000 | [249] |
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Nikolaos, P.C.; Marios, F.; Dimitris, K. A Review of Pumped Hydro Storage Systems. Energies 2023, 16, 4516. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114516
Nikolaos PC, Marios F, Dimitris K. A Review of Pumped Hydro Storage Systems. Energies. 2023; 16(11):4516. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114516
Chicago/Turabian StyleNikolaos, Papadakis C., Fafalakis Marios, and Katsaprakakis Dimitris. 2023. "A Review of Pumped Hydro Storage Systems" Energies 16, no. 11: 4516. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114516