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Article

Opportunities for the Application of 3D Printing in the Critical Infrastructure System

by
Grzegorz Budzik
1,
Krzysztof Tomaszewski
2 and
Andrzej Soboń
3,*
1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Rzeszów University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
2
Faculty of Political Science and International Studies, University of Warsaw, 00-927 Warsaw, Poland
3
National Security Faculty, War Studies University, 00-910 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2022, 15(5), 1656; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051656
Submission received: 9 December 2021 / Revised: 16 January 2022 / Accepted: 14 February 2022 / Published: 23 February 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Issues of the Energy Supply and Demand in the Socio-Economic Development and Reorganization of Military Security Structures)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The present article presents an analysis of the potential application of 3D printing in the critical infrastructure system. An attempt has been made to develop case studies for selected critical infrastructure areas, particularly with reference to the area of energy supply. The need for 3D printing applications is identified based on expert research in the energy industry. It identifies the application schemes determined by the technical and logistical possibilities associated with 3D printing in its broadest sense. A review of additive technologies with a view to their application in selected phases of critical infrastructure operation, including in crisis situations, is also carried out. Furthermore, a methodology for incorporating 3D printing into the existing critical infrastructure system is proposed. As a result, the following research hypothesis is adopted: the use of 3D printing can be an important part of measures to ensure the full functionality and efficiency of critical infrastructures, particularly in crisis situations.

1. Introduction

Additive technologies (hereafter 3D printing) are entering more and more areas of life due to their universality and potential. Initially used in scientific research, 3D printing subsequently made its way into industry as an excellent tool for making visual and functional prototypes. Today, 3D printing methods in practice allow for the production of products and semi-finished products across many industries, but are also widely available to individual users. There are many studies available on the market regarding the development and application of additive technologies, which include the annually published Wohlers Report presenting global trends in 3D printing [1], Metal AM Market Opportunities and Trends [2] relating to the additive processing of metal alloys or industry reports associated with the energy industry (Is the Oil & Gas Industry Ready for 3D Printing) [3], and critical infrastructure components (The Market for Additive Manufacturing in the Oil and Gas Sector 2018–2029) [4]. Many studies indicate that the use of additive technologies will have a strong growth rate over the next ten years, both in the development of materials for 3D printing [5,6,7,8,9,10] and in the industrial manufacture of fully functional products [11,12].
Critical infrastructure includes systems and functionally related objects, such as buildings, equipment, installations, production systems and services necessary for the basic functioning of the economy, the state and its citizens, so 3D printing could be a perfect complement or even an element of this system. The task of critical infrastructure is to ensure the efficient functioning of the state, including public administration bodies, institutions and businesses [13]. During the pandemic, certain phenomena could be observed, which spontaneously triggered the inclusion of 3D printers equipping scientific, local government and educational institutions, as well as businesses and citizens in the sphere of critical infrastructure. In the early days of the coronavirus pandemic, at a time of difficulty in supplying personal protection and safety products, especially for the medical and uniformed services, self-contained production and distribution centres for the manufacture and distribution of protective products, manufactured largely using 3D printers, were established [14,15,16]. The pandemic also affected other areas related to critical infrastructure and energy demand [17]. These examples are only the beginning of the possibilities of using 3D printing for the production, maintenance repair and overhaul of critical infrastructure, especially in the field of energy or defence [18,19]. The energy industry can exploit additive technologies to produce non-critical infrastructure components from polymeric materials, as well as produce highly mechanically and thermally robust metal alloy components used in gas turbines, e.g., burners, fuel nozzles or turbine blades [20,21]. It is predicted that the use of additive technologies to manufacture critical infrastructure components, including in the energy sector, could save up to USD 30 trillion globally in the next decade [22,23,24,25]. The identification of specific areas of critical infrastructure to which additive technologies can be applied, requires an analysis of the elements of this structure and a case study, particularly in the area of energy requirements. [26,27] The present article analyses the applicability of 3D printing, particularly in relation to the infrastructure related to the energy industry. Critical infrastructure includes many elements, notably water supply; energy supply; food; raw materials and fuels; communications; ICT networks; financial facilities; health and emergency facilities; transport; infrastructure ensuring the continuity of public administration; production; storage; stockpiling and the use of chemical and radioactive substances; including pipelines for hazardous substances [28].
A schematic of the critical infrastructure, including 3D printing technology, is shown in Figure 1. The critical infrastructure elements for which 3D printing may be directly applicable are highlighted in grey. It can be seen that energy, strategic industry, transport, as well as water supply are among the areas to which additive technologies can be rapidly deployed. Furthermore, additive technologies can be a direct part of the critical infrastructure.
Given the above, the following research hypothesis appears to be justified: the use of 3D printing can be an important part of systemic measures to ensure the full functionality and efficiency of critical infrastructure, particularly in crisis situations.

2. Materials and Methods

Research was carried out as part of the preparation of this article. An in-depth interview method based on a set of seven extended questions was used. These addressed the main assumptions that guided the authors of the text. The aim of the research was both to verify the central hypothesis posed by the authors in the introduction and to reference the academic knowledge related to the current conditions of the energy sector in Poland. The questions were designed using SWOT analysis. However, they were extended with additional issues (Table 1).
A key task was to establish the state of energy sector company knowledge and the level of sophistication of the use of 3D printing technology in their operations. The research was based on five interviews with middle and senior managers of key companies in the Polish oil and gas sector. Among the interviewees, the following representatives should be noted: LOTOS Upstream sp. z o.o. (Gdańsk, Poland); PGNiG S.A. Central Measurement and Research Laboratory (Warsaw, Poland); Geofizyka Toruń S.A. (Toruń, Poland); Polska Spółka Gazownictwa sp. z o.o. (Tarnów, Poland) and PERN S.A. (Płock, Poland)
The research material was qualitatively analysed. This enabled a detailed interpretation of the content discussed during the interviews. The interviewees spoke from an expert perspective, bearing in mind: (a) the position they held (most often in R&D and innovation), (b) their area of knowledge and (c) their professional experience.
An analysis of the application areas of additive technologies within the critical infrastructure field shows that they have the highest potential in relation to energy infrastructure, both in the manufacture of components for the energy industry and during the operations, maintenance and in-service support. The energy industry requires the manufacture of high-resilience products for its critical infrastructure, especially in the area of energy production. In this respect, technologies based on PBF processes, Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) and Directed Energy Deposition (DED), which allow for the production of elements from high-strength nickel alloys, e.g., IN718 for use in the critical parts of thermal turbines in the aerospace and power generation industries, are ideal. Moreover, additive technologies make it possible to decrease stock levels, and in the case of the requirement to manufacture spare parts, it is possible to produce components using 3D printing on the basis of documentation provided by the manufacturer or on the basis of documentation developed in the process of reverse engineering. It is also possible to modify components, for example, the thermal turbine component overhaul can be realised using new additively manufactured parts, with new geometry allowing the power unit to achieve greater efficiency. Additive technologies also make it possible to replace traditional highly wasteful and expensive turbine blade manufacture based on, for example, precision casting, leading to additional production cost savings.

3. Results

Additive manufacturing methods are among the technologies that have extremely versatile and a broad potential for use in many fields. However, it should be considered that in relation to critical infrastructure, they can also be considered from the traditional point of view of production systems allowing for the manufacture of machine and equipment components. At the same time, they can be an element of the system, performing functions in crisis situations to sustain the operation of strategic technical equipment, such as the production of spare parts by 3D printing in the absence of access to original parts [29,30].

3.1. Introduction to 3D Printing Applications in the Area of Critical Infrastructure

An additional advantage of 3D printing is the dispersion of infrastructure in many places, including manufacturing companies, universities and research institutes, local government units and schools, as well as a significant number of printers in the hands of private users. Taking this into account, three patterns in the use of additive technologies can be distinguished in relation to the production and operation of critical infrastructure. The first pattern refers to the use of 3D printers in the process of production machinery and equipment in the energy industry, for example. The second pattern allows 3D printing equipment to be used as a planned overhaul system with mobile repair centres being used, for example, as technical repair vehicles in the energy services or the armed forces. The third pattern refers to a distributed 3D printer system that can be integrated and ready for action when emergencies occur [31]. This approach requires the creation of a database of equipment that is in private ownership, in the government sector and with commercial organisations. This type of approach could be an element included in the National Programme for Critical Infrastructure Protection. To this end, an analysis of the potential areas of use for 3D printing should be undertaken, particularly in the field of energy security [32].
Additive technologies are subject to a continuous standardisation process in accordance with ISO standards. These standards often set out guidelines for product design, data processing, specific applications or industries, and also refer to the materials used, the processes and quality controls [33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42]. The standards do not refer to the classification of critical infrastructure applications, but distinguish the basic additive processes, which include:
  • VP—Vat Photopolymerisation: a process involving layered photopolymerisation to a defined volume using a concentrated beam of ultraviolet light [43];
  • MJ—Material Jetting: an additive manufacturing technology involving the layered printing of liquid material onto a model based on layered cross-sections. The change of state from liquid to solid usually occurs by solidification or photopolymerisation [44];
  • BJ—Binder Jetting: the bonding of powdered material with a liquid binder. A process in which a powdered material is bonded together by depositing a liquid binder (adhesive) from a print head onto the cross-section of a layered model [45,46];
  • PBF—Powder Bed Fusion: the selective bonding of powdered material. A process in which heat energy selectively melts layers within a powder bed [47,48,49];
  • MEX—Material Extrusion: the extrusion of layers of material. A process in which a thermoplastic material is extruded into a fibre (thread) that is layered according to a digitally specified path [50,51,52];
  • DED—Directed Energy Deposition: the targeted melting of supplied material. A process in which concentrated energy melts a material in layers during deposition (concentrated heat energy emitted as a laser beam, electron beam or plasma arc) [24,53,54,55,56];
  • SL—Sheet Lamination: cross-section lamination. A process in which successive sections of a model are cut out from sheets of material glued to each other in succession [57,58,59,60].
The presented list of incremental processes refers to the ISO standard, but it should be remembered that each of these processes is used by companies producing 3D printers to implement their own technologies.

3.2. Summary of Additive Technology Methods

The adoption of additive technologies in the area of critical infrastructures implies the possibility of manufacturing infrastructure components from suitable materials using devices of varying complexity and environmental constraints. Many additive technologies require a complex infrastructure to maintain a proper working environment. Other additive methods require the use of specialised materials that must be stored and processed under specific conditions. However, there are also 3D printing systems that are less sensitive to external factors. This is usually related to the quality and accuracy of the dimensions and shapes of the products, and consequently determines their potential for application. Taking the above into account, a summarised description of the additive methods was prepared, which will form the basis for the analysis of applications in the area of critical infrastructure. The criteria that determine the adoption of 3D printing for the production of critical infrastructure components were identified and include: the accuracy of dimensions and shape, the properties of the starting materials and those produced in the additive process, the requirements of the technology with regard to the environmental factors, the possibility of producing spare parts in mobile repair systems [42], and the production of high quality machine parts. Furthermore, the potential of additive technologies should be considered in relation to the needs of companies and institutions responsible for maintaining the critical infrastructure. Applications range from small parts in polymeric materials to complex power plant components, such as turbine blades and gears.
Vat Photopolymerisation (VP) is one of the first 3D printing technologies available on the market for professional applications. The final product is made by layered photopolymerisation in a defined volume using a concentrated ultraviolet light beam. This technology is amongst the most accurate and, at the same time, the most precise. The photopolymerisation process requires stable environmental conditions and the equipment cannot operate near sources of either low or high frequency vibration. Therefore, the operation of devices requires stable environmental conditions with regard to both the ambient temperature and humidity. Furthermore, VP devices must also not be operated in dusty environments or be exposed to UV radiation. Photopolymerisation can be achieved either by scanning the resin surface with a UV laser beam or by projecting cross-sections of the model in layers using a projector. Resins with photoinitiators that allow for the photopolymerisation process to take place are used to produce prototypes. Different types of resins with properties imitating specific thermoplastic materials can be used. This makes the manufacture of plastic components or spare parts for critical infrastructure possible. The working chambers of machines make it possible to print items ranging from small objects with dimensions of just a few millimetres to objects with lengths of more than 1000 mm. Due to its sensitivity to the environmental conditions, the volumetric photopolymerisation process is not suitable for mobile repair stations [43].
Material Jetting (MJ) is an additive process in which a liquid material is printed onto a layered cross-section of a model; the change of state from liquid to solid usually occurs through solidification or photopolymerisation. This technology is versatile and allows the manufacture of specific and yet precise products from polymeric materials. At the same time, it can be used to produce technological tools for subsequent stages of the production process, which makes it highly adaptable. For example, it is possible to make injection moulds for the short series production of injection moulded products from polymeric materials. Due to its sensitivity to environmental conditions, the volumetric photopolymerisation process can be difficult to implement in mobile repair stations. One example of the application of MJ technology in a crisis situation is the manufacture of protective visor components (Figure 2) using PolyJet technology during the supply shortage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic [44]. In the first period of the pandemic, all safeguards and protective measures were needed, especially for medical and uniformed services. In subsequent phases of the pandemic, some security measures were abandoned, but the glass helmets are still used by doctors during medical procedures, including dental procedures.
Binder Jetting (BJ) involves bonding a powdered material with a liquid binder process by printing it from a special head onto a cross-section of a layered model. The technology allows for the production of mainly visual models with the possibility of imprinting coloured textures. Due to the relatively low strength of the models, it is rarely used for the production of functional prototypes. An additional advantage of the BJ process is the ability to directly produce casting moulds for metal alloys, making this method very functional for the rapid production of tools used in the foundry industry. Taking this into account, it is possible to use it for the manufacture of cast critical infrastructure components, for their direct production as well as for repair work. This makes it possible, for example, to produce castings of spare parts for critical infrastructure for which the originals cannot be sourced. Of course, this type of casting should be treated as a semi-finished product for further finishing [45,46].
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) is a process in which thermal energy selectively fuses layers within a powder bed volume. A distinction must be made here between PBF processes for polymeric materials and metal alloys. In the case of polymeric materials, this technology is mostly used to manufacture products from polyamide-based materials. These processes are mostly dedicated to stationary manufacturing, but it is also possible to find equipment that can meet the criteria for mobile repair systems. As far as the processing of metal alloy powders is concerned, the PBF process is extremely versatile and allows for the manufacture of high-quality components used in the construction of critical infrastructure equipment. These include highly stressed components, such as the blades of power turbines or the gears of gearboxes used in the energy industry. For example, Siemens manufactures burners for power generation equipment and rotor components for industrial turbines, using the Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) process. In most cases, the devices are stationary and require an extensive infrastructure, but it is possible to find 3D printers on the market that can meet the criteria for mobile renovation systems due to their small size, low energy and gas utility requirements, and a design that allows for the device to be transported. An example of such a device is the XM200C system (Figure 3) [47,48,49].
Material Extrusion (MEX)—a process involving the extrusion of a thermoplastic material into a fibre (thread) arranged in layers according to a digitally determined path. This technology is widely used both in the industry and by private users. It offers the possibility of manufacturing high-strength products from polymeric materials with continuous operating temperatures of up to 260 °C (310 °C—short-term loads), which allows for the technology to be used to manufacture components for critical infrastructure. It enables the processing of many materials, both insulators and polymer matrix conductors. The adaptability of the process makes it possible to manufacture products under industrial conditions and to equip mobile repair systems. An example of such a solution is the mobile spare parts production system developed at the Rzeszow University of Technology, designed for work in field conditions for energy repair services as well as for the armed forces (Figure 4) [50,51,52].
Directed Energy Deposition (DED)—a process in which focused energy melts a material in layers as it is deposited (the focused heat energy is emitted as a laser beam, electron beam or plasma arc). Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) can also be added to the group of DED technologies. This process builds on the experience of welding and surfacing technologies and is suitable for the manufacture of high-strength metal alloy products. The dimensional accuracy of the manufactured components is considerably lower than that of the PBF processes, so it is necessary to plan machining allowances at a specified level when designing products, especially if the component is intended to work with other parts in a machine assembly. An important advantage of this technology is the possibility of producing parts from scratch, as well as to repair them by the additive reconstruction of damaged parts. This makes it possible to use the technology to provide a manufacturing and repair system for critical infrastructure components. This type of equipment should mostly be used in climate-controlled rooms. Powdered materials should also be stored under special conditions to avoid altering their properties. In some cases, it is possible to adapt equipment for mobile repair systems as an element of critical infrastructure [24,53,54,55,56].
Sheet Lamination (SL)—cross-section lamination, a process in which successive sections of a model are cut out of sheets of material glued to each other successively. It is currently a niche technology used in industrial design and used to produce casting models for ceramic moulds. Due to the properties of the materials used and the complexity of the process, its application to the manufacture of critical infrastructure components is limited [57,58,59,60].
The presented analysis of additive technologies in relation to applications for the manufacture of critical infrastructure products and their use as a component has allowed the results to be tabulated (Table 2).
An additional advantage of 3D printing is the dispersion of infrastructure in many places, including manufacturing companies, universities and research institutes, local government units and schools, as well as a significant number of printers in the hands of private users. Taking this into account, three patterns in the use of additive technologies can be distinguished, in relation to the production and operation of critical infrastructure. The first pattern refers to the use of 3D printers in the process of manufacturing machinery and equipment in the energy industry, for example. The second pattern allows 3D printing equipment to be used as a planned maintenance system consisting of mobile maintenance centres commonly used as maintenance trucks in the energy services or armed forces. The third pattern refers to a distributed system of 3D printers that can be integrated and ready for action when emergencies arise. This approach additionally requires the creation of a database of devices that are in private ownership as well as in government and local government institutions. This type of approach could be an element included in the National Programme for Critical Infrastructure Protection. To this end, an analysis of potential areas of use for 3D printing should be undertaken, particularly in the field of energy security.

3.3. Energy Demand of Processes

It is also possible to analyse the energy requirements of additive processes, which, in comparison to classical manufacturing processes, belong to processes with relatively low energy consumption. However, this is not a simple task that can be a separate issue, as it is influenced by various factors that include the type of additive process, the type of material being processed, the size of the 3D printer, and whether thermal parameters need to be maintained during the process. In general, it can be stated that the processing of metal alloys requires more process energy than the processing of polymeric materials. Additionally, the implementation of the additive process in thermally stabilised working chambers will require more energy than for the processes carried out in open working spaces. A summary of the process energy demand for additive processes is presented in Table 3.
The energy demand of the processes was determined on a scale of 1 to 10, where 1 indicates a low energy demand and 10 a very high energy demand, with respect to the additive technologies themselves. The values in the table were introduced based on the technical data of the incremental machines, without taking into account the details of the manufacturing process of specific products.
Analysing the generalised data from Table 3, it can be seen that metal alloy processing requires more energy than polymer processing. Industrial equipment also consumes more energy than home or laboratory printers. The total energy demand during the manufacture of a product by means of an additive process requires a broader analysis not only of the process itself, but also of the shape and dimensions of the object and the technological parameters of the process itself. It is a complex issue closely related to the component to be manufactured and the number of components to be produced in a single additive process.

3.4. Business Practice—Results from In-Depth Reviews

Before presenting the questions and discussing the answers, it should be pointed out that in all of the interviews, it was confirmed that the 3D printing issue belongs to the area defined as research, development and innovation (hereafter “R&D&I”).
Four interviews out of five confirmed the use of 3D printing technology in practice, for the following question: “Is 3D printing used in your company? In what area of activity?”. One company that has not yet used this technology in its operations, took the necessary steps to implement its use. All the answers indicate that the most promising application area for 3D printing is the servicing of energy infrastructure, in particular, the production of spare parts for equipment already used in companies. It was pointed out that 3D printing enables quick repairs while optimising costs, especially in emergency situations. Another important aspect of using 3D printing is its compliance with high safety standards.
The following question was also posited: “Do you see potential for wider use of 3D printing technology in your business? In which scheme: (a) the use of 3D printers in the manufacturing process of machinery and equipment? (b) A planned maintenance system, which will include mobile maintenance centres? (c) A distributed system of 3D printers, which can be integrated and ready to operate when crisis situations arise? (d) Other?” All interviewees strongly indicated the possibility of using 3D printing in scheme (a), i.e., in particular, for the production of spare parts for equipment. This type of solution makes it possible to deliver parts quickly, without excessive waiting for deliveries from an external service (which is particularly important in relation to critical infrastructure), at a relatively favourable price and whilst maintaining safety standards (this only applies to solutions where there are no required technical certificates). It is also an advantageous solution for servicing machines, for which the manufacturer no longer provides spares support, e.g., due to the end of production of a given machine model. The scheme (b) of 3D printing use was indicated in two interviews. Experts would see such an application in a situation where a company owns a larger number of 3D printers and plans to use them in a systemic way, not just as part of the R&D&I activity. One of the signalled problems in this scheme is the issue of robustness of the printing equipment against potential damage due to frequent transportation and the problem of calibration each time, to ensure a high print quality. Another major problem that was pointed out was the time taken to print: the more complex the component the longer the printing time. The scheme (c) was indicated in one case. Such a possibility would concern the activity of a corporate group, where individual subsidiaries, having 3D printers at their disposal, could offer mutually complementary services as part of the implementation of specific projects or system activities.
The answers to the following question were unanimous: “Can the use of 3D printing technology be a viable alternative to the technical (technological) solutions used in your company to date?”. All the interviews indicated that 3D printing is important for the operational activities conducted by their companies. Its importance lies primarily in its ability to provide an ad hoc servicing of equipment, especially in those situations where there are problems in ensuring continuity of supply chains and the right component cannot be brought in quickly to repair the equipment. The interviews indicated that wider use of 3D printing may not be viable due to the lack of capacity for the large-scale production of parts. Additionally, in one interview, an expert pointed to the potential of 3D printing in relation to the production of prototypes of new equipment designed in-house. Such applications allow the device to be pre-tested and its efficiency and functionality to be verified before actual production begins.
Several advantages were observed in relation to the following question: “What advantages and disadvantages, if any, do you see associated with the use of 3D printing technology in your company?”. Among the advantages cited were the ability to design dedicated parts according to current operational needs; easy access to 3D printing technology; and the ability to develop new technologies based on 3D printing by using it to produce prototypes of equipment, subassemblies, or individual components. The disadvantages of the technology include the lack of possibility of large-scale production; the relatively high cost of using 3D equipment in relation to the application (the costs indicated by experts include the purchase of the printer, the purchase of the licensed software, the purchase of consumables, the employment of qualified staff to operate the equipment and design the parts, and the cost of servicing the printers themselves); and the possibility of producing only parts for which no technical certification is required. Among the solutions to offset the disadvantages of 3D printing in terms of the high costs, the possibility of undertaking the possible cooperation with external companies specialising in 3D printing applications, rather than investing in the development of this technology in-house, was cited. However, the choice of this type of path would be determined by individual financial calculations in relation to each planned project.
Experts indicated three groups of factors (social, technological and economic), in relation to the following question: “What could be the potential problems (difficulties) of using 3D printing in your company?”. In terms of the social factors, the problem remains the relatively low knowledge of company employees concerning the opportunities presented by the use of 3D printing. This technology is treated with a certain degree of detachment, in terms of “technological novelty”, the use of which may be associated with uncertainty of the end result and high costs. The role of R&D&I departments in companies was emphasised. They may contribute to an increased interest in this technology and, consequently, to its wider application to day-to-day operations in other departments, particularly in the service area. With regard to technological factors, it was pointed out that 3D printing technology can be used mainly as a support for maintenance activities, but it is not profitable enough (in the current situation) to be used as an alternative to the system solutions adopted to date. An important limitation is also its use only in situations where no certification or attestation of components is required. With regard to the economic factors, it was pointed out that the lack of large-scale production capabilities based on 3D printing could generate relatively high costs for the company. These are related to the purchase and servicing of the device, as well as the need to employ qualified personnel to work with 3D printers.
“What challenges do you see in relation to the use of 3D printing technology in your company?” was the question that indicated, in particular, the following issues: raising an awareness of employees and management boards of the opportunities offered by the use of 3D printing in companies; the need for greater investment and investment in the development of this technology; the need to create additional full-time positions (possibly specialised units in companies) that could deal with the design, operation and servicing of components made in 3D printing technology for the needs of various types of company operations; and the need for a closer cooperation with scientific and research institutions in terms of exchanging experiences and obtaining scientific support (e.g., as part of R&D&I projects implemented through a competition with external partners).
Experts expressed a very positive opinion on the prospects for the use of 3D printing in relation to the following question: “Can 3D printing technology be—in your opinion—widely used in the energy industry? In which areas in particular?”. The importance of this technology in the area of servicing critical infrastructure, especially in the situations requiring rapid intervention, as well as where there are complex supply chains for service parts and repair times could be extended, was especially highlighted. The use of 3D printing makes it possible to effectively repair a defect on an ad hoc basis and restore the critical infrastructure to full operation. Among the areas of application, the most frequently mentioned were oil and gas drilling, storage areas and measurement and research activities. An important area of application is also the manufacture of prototypes prior to starting production. One of the experts also pointed to the possibility of using 3D printing in the company’s marketing activities, i.e., for the production of gadgets and USB stick housings with the company’s logo.
The conclusions of the research conducted for the purposes of this article should be treated in terms of the views of the expert practitioners in a given field. In summary, the in-depth interviews with experts indicated that the business community is very open towards the use of 3D printing technology. However, interest in this technology is not matched by its widespread adoption. It should be recognised that it is treated in terms of an area limited to R&D&I. This means that companies are actively searching for new technologies that they can use within their activities to improve production and service processes. At the same time, however, adequate knowledge, preparation and testing are required to ensure high reliability and repeatability in terms of the designed solutions. R&D&I departments are making efforts to popularise this technology and apply it more widely. At the same time, the interviews confirmed the high potential of this technology, the wide possibilities for its use and the positive prospects for its development in each of the companies surveyed.

4. Discussion

An analysis of the application areas of additive technologies within the critical infrastructure field shows that they have the highest potential in relation to energy infrastructure, both in the manufacture of components for the energy industry and during operations, maintenance and in-service support. The energy industry requires the manufacture of high-resilience products for its critical infrastructure, especially in the area of energy production. In this respect, technologies based on PBF processes, Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) and Directed Energy Deposition (DED), which allow for the production of elements from high-strength nickel alloys, e.g., IN718 for use in the critical parts of thermal turbines in the aerospace and power generation industries, are ideal. Moreover, additive technologies make it possible to decrease stock levels and, in the case of the requirement to manufacture spare parts, it is possible to produce components using 3D printing on the basis of documentation provided by the manufacturer or on the basis of documentation developed in the process of reverse engineering. It is also possible to modify components, for example, a thermal turbine component overhaul can be realised using new additively manufactured parts, with new geometry allowing for the power unit to achieve greater efficiency. Additive technologies also make it possible to replace traditional highly wasteful and expensive turbine blade manufacture based on, for example, precision casting, leading to additional production cost savings.
Given the above, it is reasonable to assume that 3D printing can be an important component of the activities of companies in the energy sector and contribute to improved efficiency, not only in terms of the day-to-day maintenance of the functionality of the energy infrastructure, but also in terms of design (e.g., prototypes) and the systemic servicing of equipment.

5. Conclusions

The analysis conducted for the purposes of this article and the detailed qualitative research allow us to fully confirm the hypothesis adopted in the Introduction. Due to their flexibility and manufacturing potential, additive technologies can be an important element of critical infrastructure, either supporting existing elements or complementing the structure on their own. In conclusion, it is possible to identify the de facto trends in 3D printing applications for critical infrastructure:
  • Producing spare parts for existing equipment on the basis of reverse engineering.
  • Manufacturing of machine parts based on the 3D-CAD numerical technical documentation.
  • Implementation into production machine components used in critical infrastructure as planned by the production company.
  • Design of equipment for critical infrastructure with the possibility of using additive systems.
  • Creation of parts databases for critical infrastructure equipment to be manufactured by 3D printing.
  • Design of mobile repair systems based on the use of additive methods.
An unquestionable advantage of additive technologies is their relatively, in relation to conventional technologies, low waste and low energy demand, which makes their use additionally profitable from the point of view of energy consumption, especially in conditions or crisis or supply constraint. Efforts should also be made to raise awareness among engineering and management staff of the possibility of using additive technologies to manufacture products and spare parts for critical infrastructure. This is particularly important at the decision stage of deploying 3D printing into a critical infrastructure system in a general context, but also for specific applications.
The use of additive technologies as part of critical infrastructure requires a new approach to production resources and methods [61,62,63]. There is a need to develop methodologies for implementing 3D printing in different areas of critical infrastructure with a particular focus on the energy sector. Ultimately, databases of parts that can be manufactured using additive methods should be created, as well as databases of companies, institutions and individuals who have 3D printers, which can be an important element in the management of critical infrastructure, especially in crisis situations. A further important element in the implementation of additive technologies for the production of critical infrastructure elements is the development of a methodology for the design of elements for which 3D printing will be the default manufacturing process, and technical documentation that includes the 3D-CAD models of spare parts, and ultimately repair procedures using virtual reality and augmented reality.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, G.B., K.T. and A.S.; methodology, K.T. and A.S.; validation, A.S.; formal analysis, G.B. and K.T.; investigation, G.B., K.T. and A.S.; resources, K.T. and G.B., data curation, K.T.; writing—original draft preparation, G.B. and K.T.; writing—review and editing, A.S.; visualisation, A.S.; supervision, A.S.; project administration, A.S.; funding acquisition, A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Michał Paszkowski, Ph.D. (LOTOS Upstream sp. z o.o.); Marta Bloch-Michalik, Ph.D. (PGNiG S.A. Central Measurement and Research Laboratory); Seweryn Tlałka (Geofizyka Toruń S.A.); Piotr Narloch (Polska Spółka Gazownictwa sp. z o.o.); Paweł Wysocki and Piotr Borasiński (PERN S.A.).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Critical infrastructure diagram incorporating 3D printing.
Figure 1. Critical infrastructure diagram incorporating 3D printing.
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Figure 2. Possible application of MJ technology (PolyJet) for the manufacture of protective visor elements.
Figure 2. Possible application of MJ technology (PolyJet) for the manufacture of protective visor elements.
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Figure 3. Possibilities for using PBF technology to manufacture critical infrastructure components—view of a device and 3D prints of power turbine blades.
Figure 3. Possibilities for using PBF technology to manufacture critical infrastructure components—view of a device and 3D prints of power turbine blades.
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Figure 4. MEX-based mobile system for the manufacture of spare parts under field conditions.
Figure 4. MEX-based mobile system for the manufacture of spare parts under field conditions.
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Table
Table 1. Main issues of the in-depth interviews.
Table 1. Main issues of the in-depth interviews.
No.Issue Related to the 3D PrintingQuestion
1.State of playIs 3D printing used in your company? In what area of activity?
2.Potential
areas of
application		Do you see potential for the wider use of 3D printing technology in your business? In which scheme:
(a) The use of 3D printers in the manufacturing process of machinery and equipment?
(b) A planned maintenance system, which will include mobile maintenance centres?
(c) A distributed system of 3D printers, which can be integrated and ready to operate when crisis situations arise?
(d) Other?
3.OpportunitiesCan the use of 3D printing technology be a viable alternative to the technical (technological) solutions used in your company, to date?
4.Strengths and weaknessesWhat advantages and disadvantages, if any, do you see associated with the use of 3D printing technology in your company?
5.ThreatsWhat could be the potential problems (difficulties) of using 3D printing in your company?
6.RisksWhat challenges do you see in relation to the use of 3D printing technology in your company?
7.General
perspectives		Can 3D printing technology be—in your opinion—widely used in the energy industry? In which areas in particular?
Source: own research.
Table
Table 2. Analysis of additive technologies in the manufacture of critical infrastructure products.
Table 2. Analysis of additive technologies in the manufacture of critical infrastructure products.
AM Process
Area of Application		VPMJBJPBFMEXDEDSL
Energetics***************
Transport**************
Rescue*********
Health protection***********
Water supply***********
* low application potential, **medium application potential, *** high application potential. Source: own research.
Table
Table 3. Energy demand of processes.
Table 3. Energy demand of processes.
AM ProcessVPMJBJPBFMEXDEDSL
Desktop or laboratory 3D printer (polymers)23362NA4
Industrial 3D printer
(polymers)		55696NA6
Desktop or laboratory 3D printer
(metal alloys)		NANANA73
Composite
metal
polymer		75
Industrial 3D printer
(metal alloys)		NANANA107
Composite
metal
polymer		107
Source: own research.
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Budzik, G.; Tomaszewski, K.; Soboń, A. Opportunities for the Application of 3D Printing in the Critical Infrastructure System. Energies 2022, 15, 1656. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051656

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Budzik G, Tomaszewski K, Soboń A. Opportunities for the Application of 3D Printing in the Critical Infrastructure System. Energies. 2022; 15(5):1656. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051656

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Budzik, Grzegorz, Krzysztof Tomaszewski, and Andrzej Soboń. 2022. "Opportunities for the Application of 3D Printing in the Critical Infrastructure System" Energies 15, no. 5: 1656. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051656

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