Next Article in Journal
Analysis of the Scope for Reducing the Level of Energy Consumption of Crew Transport in an Underground Mining Plant Using a Conveyor Belt System Mining Plant
Previous Article in Journal
An Optimal Allocation Method of Distributed PV and Energy Storage Considering Moderate Curtailment Measure
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Energies
Volume 15
Issue 20
10.3390/en15207683
energies-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Promising and Potential Applications of Phase Change Materials in the Cold Chain: A Systematic Review

by
Adhiyaman Ilangovan
1,2,
Samia Hamdane
2,3,
Pedro D. Silva
1,2,*,
Pedro D. Gaspar
1,2 and
Luís Pires
1,2
1
Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Beira Interior, Rua Marquês d’Ávila e Bolama, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
2
C-MAST-Center for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
3
Laboratory of Mechanical Engineering (LGM), Mohamed Khider University, BP145, Biskra 07000, Algeria
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2022, 15(20), 7683; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207683
Submission received: 31 August 2022 / Revised: 6 October 2022 / Accepted: 10 October 2022 / Published: 18 October 2022
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Appropriate measures have been taken to reduce energy requirements for cold chain applications. Thermal energy storage is an accepted method to reduce the need for electrical energy after harvesting fresh horticultural produce. The use of phase change materials (PCM) in postharvest storage, outside of a temperature-controlled environment, extends shelf life and keeps food at the ideal temperature. This review focuses on the various trials using PCM to improve cold chain effectiveness. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each type of storage using different PCM, as well as the likely and potentially promising applications of thermal energy storage in the cold chain.

1. Introduction

Unexpected temperature fluctuations or disruptions in the food cold chain can affect food safety and quality, leading to a loss of consumer confidence and an increase in food waste. Reportedly, about one-third of the world’s food production is wasted each year [1,2]. Much of these losses are due to poor post-harvest handling, lack of proper facilities, and inadequate cold chain training of workers. Cold chain issues have been studied and reviewed over the past decade [3,4,5]. Due to inefficient management, about 30% of all food is wasted worldwide. More than half of all harvested fruits and vegetables are lost due to poor thermal management during storage [6,7]. It is estimated that more than CAD 25 billion worth of food is wasted in Canada each year, or about 2% of Canada’s GDP. Global food losses vary widely by region, with higher losses in countries such as China, where only 15% of fresh produce is shipped refrigerated, even though this food must be refrigerated [8]. In 2012, the total cost of food waste in the EU-28 was estimated at EUR 143 billion. A temperature rise of 10 °C increases the spoilage rate by 2–3 times in a short period of time if fruits are improperly handled after harvest [9]. To improve the quality of food, it is important to maintain the temperature during storage and transportation, as this helps to reduce waste. Food cold chain applications account for approximately 8% of global electricity, contributing to an increase in fossil fuel consumption and 2.5% of global carbon emissions [10]. Recently, several researchers have worked to improve the efficiency of cold storage by optimizing the stacking pattern, position, and ventilation of packages [11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18]. However, these studies only decrease the energy consumption during storage without considering thermal conditions throughout the cold chain. Produce quality must be maintained throughout the cold chain, i.e., during storage, transportation, and post-harvest retail display. Produce is stored at optimal temperature but must be transported from harvest to storage chambers, and after storage it must be delivered to customers, with transportation playing a critical role in maintaining optimal temperature. Food is transported from ports and airports through a network of nearly 4 million vehicles around the world, and maintaining a controlled environment is not feasible because containers are exposed to adverse environmental conditions [19]. Poor post-harvest handling results in unacceptable food quality and causes microbial rot, spoiled products, and maximum losses due to food waste [3]. Thermal energy storage is one of the most promising methods used to overcome the mismatch between supply and demand in energy distribution in cold chain logistics. The overall energy consumption decreases and efficiency are improved by using PCM for thermal energy storage in various applications such as transportation [20,21,22,23], showcases [24,25,26], household refrigerators [27,28,29,30,31,32,33], and buildings [34,35,36]. During the process of solidification and melting, cans store and release a large amount of energy in the form of latent heat. This phenomenon improves the energy management working during peak load conditions for optimum storage [37]. The management of thermal energy storage approaches usually are classified into deterministic (considering no uncertainty) and robust/stochastic (dealing with uncertainty) [38,39]. The aim of this review paper is to investigate the use of PCM in various applications, mainly related to cold storage.
Some of the researchers worked on PCM reviews related to cold chains [40,41,42,43,44,45]. Rostami et al. [40] carried out a review of properties of nano PCM and work mainly focused on solar energy storage. A review by Taher et al. [41] was mainly focused on the PCM in refrigerated trucks. Sarkar et al. [42] investigated packaging structures in cold stores using PCM. Nie et al. [43], Oró et al. [44] and Pielichowska et al. [45] reviewed all applications from solar building to textiles and their properties. Although many researchers have studied the use of PCM and its thermal properties, they are mainly concerned with the chemical properties of PCM and its encapsulation methods. This paper mainly focuses on the cold storage of perishable goods in cold chain logistics, specifically on low-temperature applications, such as refrigerated transportation, refrigerated display cases, and packaging. In addition, the use of CFD is widely used in research to predict thermal behavior. Therefore, this article focuses on the details of using different CFD methods to solve the PCM in various applications.

2. Materials and Methods

The research mainly focuses on the use of PCM in cold chain applications. The result of the research gives a comprehensive overview of the different PCM used in cold chain in different applications, and these data help to give a clear idea of the improvement in cooling temperature stabilization inside the cold chamber and also outside the cooled environment. Since the work is mainly concerned with PCM, a large number of research articles from Science Direct, Scopus, and Web of Science from 2012 to 2022 have been considered and are shown in Figure 1 to give an accurate overview. The paper aims to give an impression of the use of PCM in cold chain logistics.

2.1. Thermal Energy Storage System

Thermal energy storage is divided into sensible heat storage, latent heat storage, and thermochemical storage. Sensible heat storage (SHS) is the simplest form of energy storage and depends on the specific heat capacity and density of the material during charging and discharging. Heat losses are inevitable, and only a small amount of energy is stored [46]. Latent heat storage (LHS) is more effective than SHS because heat transfer is associated with phase transition from solid to liquid, liquid to gas, and solid to solid. The materials used for this phenomenon are called phase change materials. These LHS have higher storage density at narrow temperatures during phase transition. Thermochemical storages have the highest storage capacity compared to all others, as they can store 5 to 10 times more energy than SHS and LHS [47]. Although they have the highest capacity, they lag behind in long-term stability issues in a controlled environment, and the development approaches are difficult and expensive [42].

2.2. Classification of PCM

PCM are materials that are thermally stable during the phase transition at constant temperature, and can be classified according to the phase transition they undergo. Most practical applications of solid–solid PCM are not considered due to their low latent heat of fusion. Solid–liquid PCM are commonly used. PCM are generally classified into organic, inorganic, and eutectic PCM [48], as shown in Figure 2.
Organic PCM are divided into paraffin, fatty acids, and esters. The properties of paraffin, with its high chemical and thermal stability, make it suitable for most applications [49]. Inorganic PCM such as salts and salt hydrates have high latent heat storage and exhibit high phase transitions due to their high enthalpy. Depending on the application, one or more PCM are combined to form eutectic salts. The combinations are organic–organic, inorganic–inorganic, or the combination of organic and inorganic. Since eutectics are tailored to the specific requirements, there is a lack of sufficient research results [50,51,52].

2.3. Selection and Characterization of PCM

The selection of PCM depends primarily on the cooling and heating requirements of the chosen application. Latent heat and nucleation properties must be higher than those of the selected application. The selection criteria mainly depend on the thermal, physical, kinetic, and chemical factors [53,54], as shown in Table 1.
PCM are used in many applications, including buildings, refrigerated trucks, household refrigerators, display cases, and solar dryers. Since this work is mainly concerned with cold storage of perishable products, Table 2 shows the temperature and approximate shelf life of the products [48].
The selected PCM must be able to resist the outside temperature to maintain thermal conditions outside the cooled environment. The PCM used must be able to maintain appropriate temperatures during the temperature fluctuations that occur during transportation and storage. Table 3 shows the suitable PCM for cold storage in the range of –1 °C to 13 °C [52].

3. Applications of PCM

Over the years, a number of researchers have looked at PCM in various applications, with most of the work related to buildings [54,55,56,57,58,59], domestic refrigeration [60,61,62], and solar panels [62,63,64,65]. The current work focuses on post-harvest storage of perishable products, and therefore mainly considers cooling in cold chains. Using PCM in the cold chain not only maintains the optimal thermal condition of the products, but also improves the efficiency of cold storage [36,43].

3.1. PCM in Packaging and Display Cabinets

In order to provide consumers with high-quality products after harvest, the cold chain is essential. The design of appropriate packaging ensures product quality at all stages of storage, transportation, and sale to consumers. The temperature of perishable products must be maintained within certain limits to provide high-quality products [66]. To mitigate the temperature rise, packaging can be designed with insulated containers, PCM, and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and stored on refrigerated shelves, as shown in Figure 3 [61]. PCM are used in freezers to protect products at optimal temperature during power outages and to reduce energy consumption by reducing the duty cycle of the compressor.
PCM with thermal insulated materials provides a reduction in energy consumption in cold chain logistics [61]. Table 4 summarizes the studies reported on the use of PCM in packaging and freezers for different types of food.
Marques et al. [61] studied the temperature stabilization of food display cases in the temperature range of 0 °C to 5 °C and found that the addition of nucleating agents (AgI) with water-preserved products is better during power outages and frequent opening of doors.

3.2. PCM in Refrigerated Transport

Maintaining the desired temperature inside a refrigerated trailer is challenging due to vehicle movement, frequent door openings, and inadequate tailgate insulation [73,74]. To ensure optimal thermal comfort without temperature fluctuations, innovative methods such as hybrid technology with the use of PCM in conventional refrigeration improve the quality and economy of transportation [75]. Figure 4 shows the refrigerated vehicle model used for the experimental study with a 3D cad model of the vehicle with PCM for the numerical analysis performed by [75].
Table 5 provides an overview of the use of PCM in refrigerated transport and storage. Although many researchers have expressed interest in the cold chain, few researchers have explicitly studied the refrigerated transporter PCM.
Although the installation of PCM improves cooling temperature stabilization, the location and PCM packaging must be considered to maintain both thermal and mechanical load capacity [81]. Sonnenrein et al. [82] performed an experimental analysis of refrigerators with and without PCM and found that the use of PCM (RT35HC) maintained a 2 °C lower temperature than conventional refrigerators. Alzuwaid et al. [25] added thin layers of multi-foil insulation and aerogel layers inside the standard van insulation walls, and the temperature stabilization of the addition was improved, but the addition of PCM showed inconsistent results, as the experiments were tested in an indoor chamber. To obtain a better result, the experiments need to be conducted under real-time conditions.

3.3. PCM in Domestic Refrigeration and Freezers

Energy consumption for household cooling as a function of time is significant [83]. The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) estimates that about 4% of the world’s energy is consumed through household cooling and freezing [83]. In recent years, several researchers have expressed interest in household cooling to improve temperature stabilization (PCM) and maintain temperature during power fluctuations and idling. Figure 5 shows the experimental freezer used in the laboratory [84] and Table 6 provides a summary of studies reported with the use of PCM in domestic refrigeration and freezers.

3.4. Numerical Methods in PCM Modeling

Computational fluid dynamics is a powerful numerical method used to solve complex problems in various fields. The temperature, velocity, and pressure distributions within the model can be visualized, and the results can be validated with experimental data, which improves the overall quality of the products [90]. The reliability of the numerical model used to solve the thermal behavior during phase change must be acceptable, as these models are very complex and involve nonlinear motions and phase transitions related to the change in ambient temperature [91].
In thermal engineering applications, a simplified model PCM is used in most cases to predict heat transfer, and some building models are tested without considering the convection term in the transport equations. The effective thermal conductivity approach is also used to account for the effect of natural convection based on the Rayleigh number [92]. In general, temperature-based and enthalpy-based methods are the two most commonly used methods for analyzing the phenomenon of phase change between solid and liquid PCM. In the temperature-based model, individual energy equations for the solid and the fluid must be established to explicitly predict the temperature behavior. The enthalpy-based model includes a single-phase mushy zone, and the new commercial software Fluent is widely used to validate this method against the experimental task performed [93]. Table 7 shows some of the numerical methods used in CFD with PCM in various applications.

4. Discussion

In cold chain logistics, maintaining the optimal temperature is the main concern to avoid temperature heterogeneity in stored products. The review mainly focuses on the use of PCM in cold chain applications such as refrigerated transport, display cabinets, domestic refrigeration, cold rooms, and buildings. In the first part of the article, a brief overview of thermal energy storage and PCM is given, using different properties of PCM in a range from −1 °C to 10 °C.
Different PCM are used in display cases depending on the products inside. Most commonly, water/ice packs are used as the medium to maintain the temperature. It is worth noting that in the open display cases, the PCM are placed at the outlet of the heat exchanger so that the products can be maintained for 2 h during the compressor shutdown time. Some closed display cases perform better with PCM positioned on the shelves that can maintain the temperature of the products for 20 h. Encapsulation of PCM is used in display cases to prevent spoilage of the food stored inside.
The use of PCM in a refrigerated vehicle has been employed with various strategies to maintain the thermal conditions of the products to overcome the frequent opening of the doors and the different temperature levels in the environment. The most commonly used method is to integrate PCM into the walls and compartments of the truck container. The efficiency of the refrigeration unit is improved by using less diesel fuel. Instead, the PCM can maintain the optimal temperature for up to 10 h and can reduce operating energy costs by about 15%.
The use of PCM in household refrigerators improves the efficiency of the refrigerator by reducing the consumption of the compressor by 5–30% and maintaining the thermal homogeneity of the products at about 3°–5° in the event of a power failure. In commercial freezers, PCM are introduced into the evaporator tube when the door is opened frequently to maintain cooling comfort and improve the overall temperature stabilization of the refrigerator.

5. Conclusions

The cold chain is essential for preserving and improving the quality of products handled after harvest. Improving the performance of the cold chain, from transport to storage and display, saves energy and lowers environmental emissions. Several studies on energy management have been conducted in refrigeration and display cabinets; however, very few studies have been conducted in packaging boxes, cold rooms, and refrigerated trucks with PCM. This is perhaps due to the challenges in controlling external factors such as temperature, insulation, and frequent door openings. For instance, refrigerated trucks were tested with constant ambient temperature by modified reefers in the container. The model’s performance must be evaluated in testing with real-time factors to provide a more reliable solution. Furthermore, the use of computational resources may provide greater flexibility in the test performed. Several authors investigated PCM in simulations, but most of them used a simplified model based on 2D analysis or a 3D model within a rectangular box. Heat transfer phenomena within models that take convection and radiation into account provide important results that can be validated with the experimental task performed. In future, considering the PCM with its thermal requirements, quantity, and position with extensive efforts considering the contemporaneous factors could provide more decisive solutions that can improve the performance of cold storage applications.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.D.S. and P.D.G.; methodology, P.D.S. and P.D.G.; validation, P.D.S. and P.D.G.; formal analysis, A.I., S.H., P.D.S., P.D.G. and L.P.; investigation, A.I.; resources, P.D.S., P.D.G. and L.P.; data curation, A.I., S.H., P.D.S., P.D.G. and L.P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.I.; writing—review and editing, P.D.S., P.D.G., S.H. and L.P.; supervision, P.D.S. and P.D.G.; project administration, P.D.S., P.D.G. and L.P.; funding acquisition, P.D.S., P.D.G. and L.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study is within the activities of project “Pack2Life–High performance packaging”, project IDT in consortium n.º 33792, call n.º 03/SI/2017, Ref. POCI-01-0247-FEDER-033792, promoted by COMPETE 2020 and co-funded by FEDER within Portugal 2020. The authors thank the opportunity and financial support to carry on this project to Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) and R&D Unit “Centre for Mechanical and Aerospace Science and Technologies” (C-MAST), under project UIDB/00151/2020.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Ndraha, N.; Hsiao, H.I.; Vlajic, J.; Yang, M.F.; Lin, H.T.V. Time-temperature abuse in the food cold chain: Review of issues, challenges, and recommendations. Food Control 2018, 89, 12–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Gustavsson, J.; Cederberg, C.; Sonesson, U.; Van Otterdijk, R.; Meybeck, A. Global Food Losses and Food Waste. 2011. Available online: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf (accessed on 12 August 2022).
  3. Koutsoumanis, K.P.; Gougouli, M. Use of time temperature integrators in food safety management. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 43, 236–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Mercier, S.; Villeneuve, S.; Mondor, M.; Uysal, I. Time–temperature management along the food cold chain: A review of recent developments. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2017, 16, 647–667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. Taoukis, P.S.; Gogou, E.; Tsironi, T.; Giannoglou, M.; Dermesonlouoglou, E.; Katsaros, G. Food cold chain management and optimization. In Emerging and Traditional Technologies for Safe, Healthy and Quality Food; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 285–309. [Google Scholar]
  6. Pang, Z.; Chen, Q.; Zheng, L. Scenario-based design of wireless sensor system for food chain visibility and safety. In Advances in Computer, Communication, Control and Automation; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2011; pp. 541–548. [Google Scholar]
  7. Hundy, G.F.; Trott, A.R.; Welch, T.C. Refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pumps. In Butterworth-Heinemann; Elsevier Ltd.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  8. Jedermann, R.; Becker, M.; Gorg, C.; Lang, W. Testing network protocols and signal attenuation in packed food transports. Int. J. Sens. Netw. 2011, 9, 170–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Robertson, G.L. Food Packaging: Principles and Practice; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Zilio, C. Moving toward sustainability in refrigeration applications for refrigerated warehouses. HVACR Res. 2014, 20, 1–2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Praeger, U.; Jedermann, R.; Sellwig, M.; Neuwald, D.A.; Hartgenbusch, N.; Borysov, M.; Geyer, M. Airflow distribution in an apple storage room. J. Food Eng. 2020, 269, 109746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Wu, W.; Defraeye, T. Identifying heterogeneities in cooling and quality evolution for a pallet of packed fresh fruit by using virtual cold chains. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2018, 133, 407–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Wu, W.; Häller, P.; Cronjé, P.; Defraeye, T. Full-scale experiments in forced-air precoolers for citrus fruit: Impact of packaging design and fruit size on cooling rate and heterogeneity. Biosyst. Eng. 2018, 169, 115–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Mukama, M.; Ambaw, A.; Berry, T.M.; Opara, U.L. Energy usage of forced air precooling of pomegranate fruit inside ventilated cartons. J. Food Eng. 2017, 215, 126–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. O’Sullivan, J.L.; Ferrua, M.J.; Love, R.; Verboven, P.; Nicolaï, B.; East, A. Forced-air cooling of polylined horticultural produce: Optimal cooling conditions and package design. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2017, 126, 67–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Getahun, S.; Ambaw, A.; Delele, M.; Meyer, C.J.; Opara, U.L. Analysis of airflow and heat transfer inside fruit packed refrigerated shipping container: Part I—Model development and validation. J. Food Eng. 2017, 203, 58–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Berry, T.M.; Defraeye, T.; Nicolaї̈, B.M.; Opara, U.L. Multiparameter analysis of cooling efficiency of ventilated fruit cartons using CFD: Impact of vent hole design and internal packaging. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2016, 9, 1481–1493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Ilangovan, A.; Curto, J.; Gaspar, P.D.; Silva, P.D.; Alves, N. CFD Modelling of the Thermal Performance of Fruit Packaging Boxes—Influence of Vent-Holes Design. Energies 2021, 14, 7990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Glouannec, P.; Michel, B.; Delamarre, G.; Grohens, Y. Experimental and numerical study of heat transfer across insulation wall of a refrigerated integral panel van. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2014, 73, 196–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Ruiz-Garcia, L.; Barreiro, P.; Robla, J.I.; Lunadei, L. Testing ZigBee motes for monitoring refrigerated vegetable transportation under real conditions. Sensors 2010, 10, 4968–4982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. De Micheaux, T.L.; Ducoulombier, M.; Moureh, J.; Sartre, V.; Bonjour, J. Experimental and numerical investigation of the infiltration heat load during the opening of a refrigerated truck body. Int. J. Refrig. 2015, 54, 170–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Tassou, S.A.; De-Lille, G.; Ge, Y.T. Food transport refrigeration–Approaches to reduce energy consumption and environmental impacts of road transport. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2009, 29, 1467–1477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. Yilmaz, D.; Mancuhan, E.; Yılmaz, B. Experimental investigation of PCM location in a commercial display cabinet cooled by a transcritical CO2 system. Int. J. Refrig. 2020, 120, 396–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Alzuwaid, F.A.; Ge, Y.T.; Tassou, S.A.; Sun, J. The novel use of phase change materials in an open type refrigerated display cabinet: A theoretical investigation. Appl. Energy 2016, 180, 76–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Alzuwaid, F.; Ge, Y.T.; Tassou, S.A.; Raeisi, A.; Gowreesunker, L. The novel use of phase change materials in a refrigerated display cabinet: An experimental investigation. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2015, 75, 770–778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Purohit, N.; Dasgupta, M.S. Thermal storage material enhanced refrigerated display cabinet. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 28, 510–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Bista, S.; Hosseini, S.E.; Owens, E.; Phillips, G. Performance improvement and energy consumption reduction in refrigeration systems using phase change material (PCM). Appl. Therm. Eng. 2018, 142, 723–735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Rahman, R.; Hasan, A.; Das, S.K.; Hossain, M.A. Performance Improvement of a Domestic Refrigerator Using Phase change Material (PCM). IOSR J. Mech. Civ. Eng. 2013, 10, 8–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Joybari, M.M.; Haghighat, F.; Moffat, J.; Sra, P. Heat and cold storage using phase change materials in domestic refrigeration systems: The state-of-the-art review. Energy Build. 2015, 106, 111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Sonnenrein, G.; Elsner, A.; Baumhögger, E.; Morbach, A.; Fieback, K.; Vrabec, J. Reducing the power consumption of household refrigerators through the integration of latent heat storage elements in wire-and-tube condensers. Int. J. Refrig. 2015, 51, 154–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Khan, M.I.H.; Afroz, H.M. Effect of phase change material on compressor on-off cycling of a household refrigerator. Sci. Technol. Built Environ. 2015, 21, 462–468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Yuan, X.D.; Cheng, W.L. Multi-objective optimization of household refrigerator with novel heat-storage condensers by Genetic algorithm. Energy Convers. Manag. 2014, 84, 550–561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Ezan, M.A.; Doganay, E.O.; Yavuz, F.E.; Tavman, I.H. A numerical study on the usage of phase change material (PCM) to prolong compressor off period in a beverage cooler. Energy Convers. Manag. 2017, 142, 95–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Hou, J.; Huang, Y.; Zhang, J.; Meng, X.; Dewancker, B.J. Influence of phase change material (PCM) parameters on the thermal performance of lightweight building walls with different thermal resistances. Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2022, 31, 101844. [Google Scholar]
  35. Németh, B.; Ujhidy, A.; Tóth, J.; Gyenis, J.; Feczkó, T. Testing of microencapsulated phase-change heat storage in experimental model houses under winter weather conditions. Build. Environ. 2021, 204, 108119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Long, X.; Zhang, W.; Li, Y.; Zheng, L. Thermal performance improvement of lightweight buildings integrated with phase change material: An experimental and simulation study. Adv. Mech. Eng. 2017, 9, 1687814017702082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Leungtongkum, T.; Flick, D.; Hoang, H.M.; Steven, D.; Delahaye, A.; Laguerre, O. Insulated box and refrigerated equipment with PCM for food preservation: State of the art. J. Food Eng. 2022, 317, 110874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Carli, R.; Cavone, G.; Pippia, T.; de Schutter, B.; Dotoli, M. Robust Optimal Control for Demand Side Management of Multi-Carrier Microgrids. IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng. 2022, 19, 1338–1351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Karimi, H.; Jadid, S. Optimal energy management for multi-microgrid considering demand response programs: A stochastic multi-objective framework. Energy 2020, 195, 116992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Rostami, S.; Afrand, M.; Shahsavar, A.; Sheikholeslami, M.; Kalbasi, R.; Aghakhani, S.; Oztop, H.F. A review of melting and freezing processes of PCM/nano-PCM and their application in energy storage. Energy 2020, 211, 118698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Taher, M.B.; Ahachad, M.; Mahdaoui, M.; Zeraouli, Y.; Kousksou, T. A survey of computational and experimental studies on refrigerated trucks. J. Energy Storage 2022, 47, 103575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Sarkar, S.; Mestry, S.; Mhaske, S.T. Developments in phase change material (PCM) doped energy efficient polyurethane (PU) foam for perishable food cold-storage applications: A review. J. Energy Storage 2022, 50, 104620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Nie, B.; Palacios, A.; Zou, B.; Liu, J.; Zhang, T.; Li, Y. Review on phase change materials for cold thermal energy storage applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020, 134, 110340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Oró, E.; De Gracia, A.; Castell, A.; Farid, M.M.; Cabeza, L.F. Review on phase change materials (PCMs) for cold thermal energy storage applications. Appl. Energy 2012, 99, 513–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Pielichowska, K.; Pielichowski, K. Phase change materials for thermal energy storage. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2014, 65, 67–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Shchukina, E.M.; Graham, M.; Zheng, Z.; Shchukin, D.G. Nanoencapsulation of phase change materials for advanced thermal energy storage systems. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2018, 47, 4156–4175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  47. Patel, J.H.; Darji, P.H.; Qureshi, M.N. Phase change material with thermal energy storage system and its applications: A systematic review. Indian J. Sci. Technol. 2017, 10, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Akeiber, H.; Nejat, P.; Majid, M.Z.A.; Wahid, M.A.; Jomehzadeh, F.; Famileh, I.Z.; Zaki, S.A. A review on phase change material (PCM) for sustainable passive cooling in building envelopes. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 60, 1470–1497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Parameshwaran, R.; Sarı, A.; Jalaiah, N.; Karunakaran, R. Applications of thermal analysis to the study of phase-change materials. In Handbook of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry; Elsevier Science BV: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; Volume 6, pp. 519–572. [Google Scholar]
  50. Nazir, H.; Batool, M.; Osorio, F.J.B.; Isaza-Ruiz, M.; Xu, X.; Vignarooban, K.; Kannan, A.M. Recent developments in phase change materials for energy storage applications: A review. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2019, 129, 491–523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Selvnes, H.; Allouche, Y.; Manescu, R.I.; Hafner, A. Review on cold thermal energy storage applied to refrigeration systems using phase change materials. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog. 2021, 22, 100807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Singh, S.; Gaikwad, K.K.; Lee, Y.S. Phase change materials for advanced cooling packaging. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2018, 16, 845–859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Gao, Y.; He, F.; Meng, X.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, M.; Yu, H.; Gao, W. Thermal behavior analysis of hollow bricks filled with phase-change material (PCM). J. Build. Eng. 2020, 31, 101447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Jia, C.; Geng, X.; Liu, F.; Gao, Y. Thermal behavior improvement of hollow sintered bricks integrated with both thermal insulation material (TIM) and Phase-Change Material (PCM). Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2021, 25, 100938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Hou, J.; Meng, X.; Dewancker, B.J. A numerical study on the effect of phase-change material (PCM) parameters on the thermal performance of lightweight building walls. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2021, 15, e00758. [Google Scholar]
  56. Wu, Q.; Wang, J.; Meng, X. Influence of wall thermal performance on the contribution efficiency of the Phase-Change Material (PCM) layer. Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2021, 28, 101398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Tunçbilek, E.; Arıcı, M.; Krajčík, M.; Nižetić, S.; Karabay, H. Thermal performance based optimization of an office wall containing PCM under intermittent cooling operation. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2020, 179, 115750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Sarı, A. Thermal energy storage characteristics of bentonite-based composite PCMs with enhanced thermal conductivity as novel thermal storage building materials. Energy Convers. Manag. 2016, 117, 132–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Cheng, W.L.; Ding, M.; Yuan, X.D.; Han, B.C. Analysis of energy saving performance for household refrigerator with thermal storage of condenser and evaporator. Energy Convers. Manag. 2017, 132, 180–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Yusufoglu, Y.; Apaydin, T.; Yilmaz, S.; Paksoy, H.O. Improving performance of household refrigerators by incorporating phase change materials. Int. J. Refrig. 2015, 57, 173–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Marques, A.C.; Davies, G.F.; Maidment, G.G.; Evans, J.A.; Wood, I.D. Novel design and performance enhancement of domestic refrigerators with thermal storage. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2014, 63, 511–519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Maghrabie, H.M.; Elsaid, K.; Sayed, E.T.; Radwan, A.; Abo-Khalil, A.G.; Rezk, H.; Olabi, A.G. Phase change materials based on nanoparticles for enhancing the performance of solar photovoltaic panels: A review. J. Energy Storage 2022, 48, 103937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Wang, D.; Huo, X.; Liu, Y.; Chen, Y.; Fan, B.; Xu, T.; Wang, L.L. A study on frost and high-temperature resistance performance of supercooled phase change material-based flat panel solar collector. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2022, 239, 111665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Javadi, F.S.; Metselaar, H.S.C.; Ganesan, P. Performance improvement of solar thermal systems integrated with phase change materials (PCM), a review. Sol. Energy 2020, 206, 330–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Verghese, K.; Lewis, H.; Lockrey, S.; Williams, H. Packaging’s role in minimizing food loss and waste across the supply chain. Packag. Technol. Sci. 2015, 28, 603–620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Zhao, X.; Xia, M.; Wei, X.; Xu, C.; Luo, Z.; Mao, L. Consolidated cold and modified atmosphere package system for fresh strawberry supply chains. LWT 2019, 109, 207–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Leducq, D.; Ndoye, F.T.; Alvarez, G. Phase change material for the thermal protection of ice cream during storage and transportation. Int. J. Refrig. 2015, 52, 133–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Navaranjan, N.; Fletcher, G.C.; Summers, G.; Parr, R.; Anderson, R. Thermal insulation requirements and new cardboard packaging for chilled seafood exports. J. Food Eng. 2013, 119, 395–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Paquette, J.C.; Mercier, S.; Marcos, B.; Morasse, S. Modeling the thermal performance of a multilayer box for the transportation of perishable food. Food Bioprod. Process. 2017, 105, 77–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Ben-Abdallah, R.; Leducq, D.; Hoang, H.M.; Fournaison, L.; Pateau, O.; Ballot-Miguet, B.; Delahaye, A. Experimental investigation of the use of PCM in an open display cabinet for energy management purposes. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019, 198, 111909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Oró, E.; Miro, L.; Farid, M.M.; Cabeza, L.F. Thermal analysis of a low temperature storage unit using phase change materials without refrigeration system. Int. J. Refrig. 2012, 35, 1709–1714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Kayansayan, N.; Alptekin, E.; Ezan, M.A. Thermal analysis of airflow inside a refrigerated container. Int. J. Refrig. 2017, 84, 76–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Gaedtke, M.; Wachter, S.; Kunkel, S.; Sonnick, S.; Rädle, M.; Nirschl, H.; Krause, M.J. Numerical study on the application of vacuum insulation panels and a latent heat storage for refrigerated vehicles with a large Eddy lattice Boltzmann method. Heat Mass Transf. 2020, 56, 1189–1201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Taher, M.B.; Kousksou, T.; Zeraouli, Y.; Ahachad, M.; Mahdaoui, M. Thermal performance investigation of door opening and closing processes in a refrigerated truck equipped with different phase change materials. J. Energy Storage 2021, 42, 103097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Mousazade, A.; Rafee, R.; Valipour, M.S. Thermal performance of cold panels with phase change materials in a refrigerated truck. Int. J. Refrig. 2020, 120, 119–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Liu, M.; Saman, W.; Bruno, F. Development of a novel refrigeration system for refrigerated trucks incorporating phase change material. Appl. Energy 2012, 92, 336–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Liu, M.; Saman, W.; Bruno, F. Computer simulation with TRNSYS for a mobile refrigeration system incorporating a phase change thermal storage unit. Appl. Energy 2014, 132, 226–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Tong, S.; Nie, B.; Li, Z.; Li, C.; Zou, B.; Jiang, L.; Ding, Y. A phase change material (PCM) based passively cooled container for integrated road-rail cold chain transportation—An experimental study. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2021, 195, 117204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Liu, G.; Li, Q.; Wu, J.; Xie, R.; Zou, Y.; Marson, A.; Manzardo, A. Improving system performance of the refrigeration unit using phase change material (PCM) for transport refrigerated vehicles: An experimental investigation in South China. J. Energy Storage 2022, 51, 104435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Ahn, J.H.; Kim, H.; Jeon, Y.; Kwon, K.H. Performance characteristics of mobile cooling system utilizing ice thermal energy storage with direct contact discharging for a refrigerated truck. Appl. Energy 2022, 308, 118373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Fioretti, R.; Principi, P.; Copertaro, B. A refrigerated container envelope with a PCM (Phase Change Material) layer: Experimental and theoretical investigation in a representative town in Central Italy. Energy Convers. Manag. 2016, 122, 131–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Sonnenrein, G.; Baumhögger, E.; Elsner, A.; Morbach, A.; Neukötter, M.; Paul, A.; Vrabec, J. Improving the performance of household refrigerating appliances through the integration of phase change materials in the context of the new global refrigerator standard IEC 62552: 2015. Int. J. Refrig. 2015, 119, 448–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Coulomb, D.; Dupont, J.L.; Pichard, A. The Role of Refrigeration in the Global Economy-29. Informatory Note on Refrigeration Technologies. 2015. Available online: https://iifiir.org/en/fridoc/the-role-of-refrigeration-in-the-global-economy-2015-138763 (accessed on 20 August 2022).
  84. Riffat, J.; Kutlu, C.; Tapia-Brito, E.; Tekpetey, S.; Agyenim, F.B.; Su, Y.; Riffat, S. Development and testing of a PCM enhanced domestic refrigerator with use of miniature DC compressor for weak/off grid locations. Int. J. Green Energy 2022, 19, 1118–1131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Khan, I.H.; Afroz, H.M.; Karim, M.A. Effect of PCM on temperature fluctuation during the door opening of a household refrigerator. Int. J. Green Energy 2017, 14, 379–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Oró, E.; Miró, L.; Farid, M.M.; Cabeza, L.F. Improving thermal performance of freezers using phase change materials. Int. J. Refrig. 2012, 35, 984–991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Liu, Z.; Zhao, D.; Wang, Q.; Chi, Y.; Zhang, L. Performance study on air-cooled household refrigerator with cold storage phase change materials. Int. J. Refrig. 2017, 79, 130–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Sonnenrein, G.; Baumhögger, E.; Elsner, A.; Fieback, K.; Morbach, A.; Paul, A.; Vrabec, J. Copolymer-bound phase change materials for household refrigerating appliances: Experimental investigation of power consumption, temperature distribution and demand side management potential. Int. J. Refrig. 2015, 60, 166–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Selvnes, H.; Allouche, Y.; Hafner, A.; Schlemminger, C.; Tolstorebrov, I. Cold thermal energy storage for industrial CO2 refrigeration systems using phase change material: An experimental study. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2022, 212, 118543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Malekjani, N.; Jafari, S.M. Simulation of food drying processes by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD); recent advances and approaches. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 78, 206–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Dutil, Y.; Rousse, D.R.; Salah, N.B.; Lassue, S.; Zalewski, L. A review on phase-change materials: Mathematical modeling and simulations. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2011, 15, 112–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Dolado, P.; Lazaro, A.; Marin, J.M.; Zalba, B. Characterization of melting and solidification in a real scale PCM-air heat exchanger: Numerical model and experimental validation. Energy Convers. Manag. 2011, 52, 1890–1907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Prieto, M.M.; González, B. Fluid flow and heat transfer in PCM panels arranged vertically and horizontally for application in heating systems. Renew. Energy 2016, 97, 331–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Hoang, H.M.; Leducq, D.; Pérez-Masia, R.; Lagaron, J.M.; Gogou, E.; Taoukis, P.; Alvarez, G. Heat transfer study of submicro-encapsulated PCM plate for food packaging application. Int. J. Refrig. 2015, 52, 151–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Cheng, W.L.; Yuan, X.D. Numerical analysis of a novel household refrigerator with shape-stabilized PCM (phase change material) heat storage condensers. Energy 2013, 59, 265–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Copertaro, B.; Principi, P.; Fioretti, R. Thermal performance analysis of PCM in refrigerated container envelopes in the Italian context–Numerical modeling and validation. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2016, 102, 873–881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Burgess, S.; Wang, X.; Rahbari, A.; Hangi, M. Optimisation of a portable phase-change material (PCM) storage system for emerging cold-chain delivery applications. J. Energy Storage 2022, 52, 104855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Du, J.; Nie, B.; Zhang, Y.; Du, Z.; Ding, Y. Cooling performance of a thermal energy storage-based portable box for cold chain applications. J. Energy Storage 2020, 28, 101238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Energies 15 07683 g001 550
Figure 1. Published papers from past 10 years using key words “PCM, Cold Storage, PCM Refrigeration”.
Figure 1. Published papers from past 10 years using key words “PCM, Cold Storage, PCM Refrigeration”.
Energies 15 07683 g001
Energies 15 07683 g002 550
Figure 2. Classification of PCM [48].
Figure 2. Classification of PCM [48].
Energies 15 07683 g002
Energies 15 07683 g003 550
Figure 3. Commercial display cabinet [61].
Figure 3. Commercial display cabinet [61].
Energies 15 07683 g003
Energies 15 07683 g004 550
Figure 4. (a) Commercial refrigerated truck; (b) 3D model of the PCM incorporated truck [75].
Figure 4. (a) Commercial refrigerated truck; (b) 3D model of the PCM incorporated truck [75].
Energies 15 07683 g004
Energies 15 07683 g005 550
Figure 5. Experimental freezer used in laboratory [84].
Figure 5. Experimental freezer used in laboratory [84].
Energies 15 07683 g005
Table
Table 1. Selection criteria of PCM.
Table 1. Selection criteria of PCM.
CategoryProperty
ThermalSuitable phase transition temperature and latent heat with good heat transfer characteristics.
PhysicalHigh density, small volume change, with favorable phase equilibrium.
KineticSufficient crystallization rate; no supercooling.
ChemicalLong lasting stability; no toxicity; nonflammable.
Table
Table 2. Temperature and approximate storage life of perishable fruits refrigeration.
Table 2. Temperature and approximate storage life of perishable fruits refrigeration.
ProductsTemperature (°C)Approximate Storage Life
Apples−1–41–12 months
Apricots−0.5–01–3 weeks
Bananas13–141–4 weeks
Blackberries−0.5–02–3 days
Kiwi fruit03–5 months
Mangoes132–3 weeks
Peaches−0.5–02–4 weeks
Pomegranates52–3 months
Table
Table 3. Commercially available PCM for cold storage applications within temperature range of (–1 °C to 10 °C).
Table 3. Commercially available PCM for cold storage applications within temperature range of (–1 °C to 10 °C).
MaterialsMelting
Temperature (°C)		Latent Heat
(kJ/kg) 		Type of ProductProducer
PureTemp-2−2277Bio-organicPureTemp LCC
E-2−2325InorganicPCM products
RT00175OrganicRubitherm GmbH
E00395InorganicPCM products
HS011350InorganicPLUSS Advanced Technologies
A21230OrganicPCM products
ATP22215OrganicAxiotherm GmbH
RT2 HC2200OrganicRubitherm GmbH
RT3 HC3190OrganicRubitherm GmbH
A33230OrganicPCM products
RT44175OrganicRubitherm GmbH
A44235OrganicPCM products
PureTemp 45 187OrganicRubitherm GmbH
RT55180OrganicRubitherm GmbH
RT5 HC5250OrganicRubitherm GmbH
OM05p5216OrganicPLUSS Advanced Technologies
A55170OrganicPCM products
CrodaTherm 55191Bio-based organicCroda
SP7 gel 5 to 8155InorganicRubitherm GmbH
ATP 66275OrganicAxiotherm GmbH
Gaia OM PCM77180 OrganicGlobal-E-Systems
ClimSel C78123InorganicClimator AB
A77190OrganicPCM products
A88180OrganicPCM products
A99190OrganicPCM products
A1010210OrganicPCM products
Table
Table 4. Summary of studies reported with the use of PCM in packaging and display cabinets.
Table 4. Summary of studies reported with the use of PCM in packaging and display cabinets.
Application/Type of Study Experimental (E) Numerical (N)PCM/ProducerMain ObservationsReference
Strawberries/ECommercial PCM (−2.0 °C to −1.2 °C)Use of PCM in the EPS box improved the quality of strawberries outside refrigerated environment.
Products were maintained at 3 °C at ambient temperature of 10 °C.		[67]
Ice cream/EPCM E21 (−21 °C)/CristopiaComparison made with and without PCM slab in ice-cream container. Use of 2.5 cm thickness slab maintains the temperature of ice cream with less than 1 °C at 20 °C surrounding temperature. [68]
Fish/EIce pack 0 °CLeast temperature change experienced at the center under the ice packs.[69]
Meat pack, food can, vegetable pack, lettuce./EGel pack 0 °CUse of aluminum foil reduces temperature up to 13%
Temperature of the meat maintained below 6 °C when gel packs are placed above the meat.		[70]
Open Display cabinet/EIce 0 °CPCM are introduced in the heat exchanger in the airflow region
Products temperature is maintained for 2 h when compressor stops operating.		[71]
Closed display cabinet/EThickening agent in distilled water −6 °CPCM positioned on the shelves are more efficient than the PCM positioned at the back
Use of PCM holds the optimum temperature for 20 h when placed on the shelves.		[29]
Closed display cabinet/EE-21(−21.3 °C) & C-18 (−18 °C)/Cristopia, ClimselEncapsulated PCM placed over evaporator
Use of PCM Extended cooling to 15.6 h with use of (C-18) and 21.5 h for (E-21) 		[72]
Table
Table 5. Summary of studies reported with the use of PCM in refrigerated transport.
Table 5. Summary of studies reported with the use of PCM in refrigerated transport.
Application/Type of Study Experimental (E) Numerical (N)PCM/ProducerMain ObservationsReference
Moving truck/E(E-26/E-29/E-32) (−26 °C, −29 °C, −32 °C)/PCM products.PCM studied at different truck speed (80–110 km/h)
E-26 at 81 km/h gave maximum melting time of 17,200s.		[76]
On vehicle PCM unit added into refrigeration system/ENew PCM made with inorganic salts. Energy cost was reduced by 82.6% compared to the conventional refrigeration system with use of new low-cost PCM. [77]
Mobile refrigeration system with PCM/NNew PCM made with Inorganic salts is used.250 kg and 360 kg PCM required without and with door opening to maintain −18 °C temperature for 10 h were identified.[78]
Integrated rail-road refrigeration/ERT 5 PCM/RubithermPCM stored in plates are equipped within the container containing fruits and vegetables. Results are compared with the diesel-powered reefer, and the results suggest that energy consumption was reduced by 86.7%. [79]
Mobile refrigeration unit for transport/EDeveloped a Eutectic PCMPhase change cold storage unit installed internally in thermal insulated compartment. PCSU maintains different air temperature −12.3–16.5 °C for 16.6 h and 10 h and reduces the energy cost 15.4–91.4% compared to the conventional refrigeration units.[80]
Refrigerated truck/EIce cube massPerformance of mobile cooling unit is studied using ice cube at different mass of ice cube. Average COP of an ice cube of 6.8 g was 28% higher than that for an ice cube of 10 g.[81]
Table
Table 6. Summary of studies using PCM in domestic refrigeration and freezers.
Table 6. Summary of studies using PCM in domestic refrigeration and freezers.
Application/Type of Study Experimental (E) Numerical (N)PCM/ProducerMain ObservationsReference
Household refrigerator/EEutectic SolutionEvaporator cabinet is placed within the PCM box. Two different PCM are used in the experiments. Results suggest that that Eutectic solution 2 performs better with reduced compressor usage of about 5–30%. [84]
Household miniature Refrigerator/EPlusICE organic A4/plusICE hydrate salt S5/PCM productsMiniature domestic refrigeration unit evaluated with use of PCM with use of solar radiation is performed. Results suggest 26% decreased power consumption and PCM enhanced the temperature of cabinet.[85]
Household refrigerator/EPolyethylene glycol-400 Temperature inside the domestic refrigerator is studied during power fluctuations. Use of Polyethylene glycol-400 PCM reduces the temperature fluctuations around 3–5 °C and during the power failure lower temperature is maintained for 2 h. [86]
Commercial freezer/EClimsel C-18/ClimatorPCM plates are placed over evaporator’s tube. Experiments were tested for frequent door opening and power failure. Results suggest that PCM maintains the temperature of the freezer almost constant from (−12 to −14 °C) for 3 h of power loss.[87]
Household frost free Refrigerator/EPCM made with (18% NaCl solution added with 5% SAP and 0.03% diatomite) Compressor OFF time, PCM retained the temperature of 8 °C and average temperature of M-packs were maintained less than −18 °C.
Frost-free refrigerator incorporated with PCM exhibit performs better with the energy and quality of food stored.		[88]
Household refrigerator/EEutectic PCM Polyethylene glycol-100/600. Merck Germany.PCM pack placed behind the wire and tube condenser in domestic refrigerator. Use of PCM increases longer compressor off-time per cycle compared with normal refrigerator and consumed 13% less electrical energy than the conventional refrigerator.[89]
Industrial refrigerator/ERT-9HC PCM/RubithermIndustrial refrigerators with different temperature requirements and load characteristics can be implemented with use of PCM. [90]
Table
Table 7. Summary of studies reported with the use of PCM in various applications using CFD.
Table 7. Summary of studies reported with the use of PCM in various applications using CFD.
ApplicationPCM/ProducerSoftware/Solver Main ObservationsReference
Food packagingRT 5 PCM/RubithermNumerical Heat transfer behavior of plate Sub micro encapsulated PCM was studied and the results suggest that the PCM encapsulated plate had better thermal buffering compared to standard cardboard. [94]
Transportation box.Gel packComsol Multiphysics Heat transfer within the multilayer box of nonrefrigerated transport using 3D model was predicted and results were compared with experimental work. Results suggest that the aluminum foil paper maintains the food reduces the radiation.
Gel pack has to be positioned far away from the exterior of the walls to prevent the optimum temperature. 		[70]
Household refrigeratorNovel PCM made with Paraffin.FORTRANCOP of the condenser is increased by 19% with the use of shape-stabilized PCM.[95]
Heating systemRT60 paraffin/RubithermAnsys Fluent 14.5/2D modelDesign of heat exchanger by the position of the PCM’s vertical and horizontal is studied and the vertical arrangement shows higher flow intensity for both solidification and melting.[93]
Refrigerated container envelopesRT35HC/RubithermCOMSOL/1D modelDifferent PCM tested in the refrigeration container results suggest that RT35HC PCM performs better during the peak load, with 4.55–4.74% energy savings. [96]
Portable packaging boxWater/Tetradecane+ docosaneAnsys Fluent 2021/3D modelPCM layout are evaluated within the portable box.
Position of PCM top, bottom, long side is the effective configuration with discharge efficiency of 80% and threshold time of 15.8 h.		[97]
Portable packaging boxRT2HC/RubithermComsol MultiphysicsDifferent PCM are tested at different positions inside the portable box, and the results suggest that the model with 20% of PCM on top and each side of the wall with two melting point PCM performs better with maximum cooling time up to 46.5 h with 90% discharge efficiency. [98]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Ilangovan, A.; Hamdane, S.; Silva, P.D.; Gaspar, P.D.; Pires, L. Promising and Potential Applications of Phase Change Materials in the Cold Chain: A Systematic Review. Energies 2022, 15, 7683. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207683

AMA Style

Ilangovan A, Hamdane S, Silva PD, Gaspar PD, Pires L. Promising and Potential Applications of Phase Change Materials in the Cold Chain: A Systematic Review. Energies. 2022; 15(20):7683. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207683

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ilangovan, Adhiyaman, Samia Hamdane, Pedro D. Silva, Pedro D. Gaspar, and Luís Pires. 2022. "Promising and Potential Applications of Phase Change Materials in the Cold Chain: A Systematic Review" Energies 15, no. 20: 7683. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207683

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop