A Decarbonization Roadmap for Singapore and Its Energy Policy Implications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Purpose and Methodology of Study
3. Singapore’s Decarbonization Commitment
4. Singapore’s Energy Landscape
Singapore’s Emission Profile
5. Technology Mapping
6. Decarbonization Roadmap
6.1. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
6.1.1. Centralized Post-Combustion CO2 Capture
6.1.2. CO2 Transportation from Singapore
6.1.3. CO2 Storage Using a Regional CCS Corridor
6.1.4. CO2 Storage in Subsurface Reservoirs
6.1.5. Development Concepts for CO2 Injection
6.1.6. Southern Lights: A Cross-Border CCS Project in ASEAN
6.2. Hydrogen Production
6.3. Transforming Refining
6.4. Refueling Transport
7. Energy Policy Implications
7.1. Energy Policy
7.1.1. Carbon Tax
7.1.2. Target for Renewable Fuels
7.1.3. A Hydrogen Roadmap
7.1.4. Public Engagement on CCS
7.1.5. ASEAN Engagement on a Regional CCS Corridor
7.1.6. CCS Regulations
7.1.7. Public-Private Partnership
7.1.8. Funding CCS Research and Development
8. Conclusions and Policy Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
ASEAN | Association of Southeast Asian Nations. They include Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia, Singapore, and Brunei Darussalam. |
bbl/d | Barrels per day |
CCS | Carbon capture and storage |
CCU | Carbon capture and utilization |
CO2 | Carbon dioxide |
CO2e | Carbon dioxide equivalent |
DEA | Diethanolamine |
EV | Electric vehicle |
GHG | Greenhouse gas |
Gt | Giga ton, 109 tons |
HFCV | Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle |
H2 | Hydrogen |
ICE | Internal combustion engine |
MDEA | Methyl diethanolamine |
MEA | Monoethanolamine |
MMbbl | Million barrels |
MMP | Minimum miscibility pressure of CO2 with oil |
Mtpa | Million tons per year |
NaOH | Sodium hydroxide |
NGCC | Natural gas combined cycle |
OGIP | Original-gas-in-place |
OOIP | Original-oil-in-place |
PPP | Public private partnership |
PSC | Production sharing contract |
SMR | Steam methane reforming |
Solar PV | Solar photovoltaic |
$ | US dollar |
SGD | Singaporean dollar |
Tcf | Trillion standard cubic feet, 1012 ft3 |
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Technology | Impact on Singapore’s CO2 Emission | Readiness for Application in Singapore | Comment | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Post-combustion carbon capture | High. Capturing CO2 from existing power plants, refineries, and chemical plants. | High. Post-combustion carbon capture technology with amines is mature. | Centralized post-combustion carbon capture in Jurong Island to take advantage of economies of scale. | [9,10] |
Pre-combustion carbon capture | Medium. Used only for new plants. Potential integration with hydrogen production. | Low. Not cost competitive with post-combustion carbon capture in NGCC due to the high cost of syngas generation. | Difficult to apply in Singapore’s integrated refinery-petrochemical complex. | [11] |
Oxy-combustion carbon capture | Low. Used only for new plants. | Low. Not cost-competitive with post-combustion carbon capture in NGCC because of costly air separation unit. | Difficult to apply in Singapore’s integrated refinery-petrochemical complex. | [10,12] |
CO2 transport by pipeline | High. Capable of transporting large quantities of CO2 at low cost. | High. CO2 can be shipped as supercritical fluid in pipelines. Uses existing trans-ASEAN gas pipelines. | Two existing natural gas pipelines connect Singapore to Indonesia. One or both may be used for CO2 transport in 2023. | [13] |
CO2 transport by ship | High. Capable of transporting large quantities of CO2 over long distances. | High. Liquid CO2 can be shipped by LPG tankers. | Capitalize on Singapore’s marine industry. Modify existing LNG terminals to handle liquid CO2. | [14,15,16] |
CO2 injection from a platform well | High. Capable of injecting large quantities of CO2. | High. Many existing offshore platforms in the region. | CO2 ”Huff-n-puff” system in Rang Dong oilfield in Vietnam. | [17] |
CO2 injection from a subsea well | High. Capable of injecting large quantities of CO2. | High. Significant experience with subsea wells in the region, including Malampaya in Philippines, Gumusut-Kakap and Rotan in Malaysia and West Seno in Indonesia. | Significant subsea well experience in Malaysia and Indonesia. | [18,19] |
CO2 storage in a saline aquifer | High. Very large CO2 storage capacity, possibly exceeding 100 Gt. | Medium. Detailed characterization of saline aquifers in the region is lacking. | Choice of aquifers awaits subsurface characterization. | [20] |
CO2 storage in an oil reservoir | High. Adequate for many years of CO2 storage. | High. Many oil reservoirs within 1000 km from Singapore | Potential oilfields for CO2-EOR in South Sumatra. | [21,22] |
CO2 storage in a gas reservoir | High. Adequate for many years of CO2 storage. | High. Many gas reservoirs within 1000 km from Singapore | Repsol to pilot CCS in Dayung gas field in South Sumatra. | [23] |
Hydrogen production by SMR with CCS | High. The hydrogen industry may become growth engine for economy. | High. Mature technology. | May be considered as part of the modernization of the refining sector. | [24,25] |
Electric vehicles | High. The electrification of cars transfers mobile emission to stationary emission which can be removed by CCS. | High. EVs are ideal for Singapore, where driving distances are short. | Singapore will be phasing out internal combustion cars by 2040. | [26] |
Biofuels | High. Biofuels may be used for cars, ship, and aviation. | High. One biorefinery in Singapore converts used cooking oil and food waste to renewable jet fuel for North American and European markets. | Singapore already has a biorefinery with a capacity of 1 Mtpa. There is a plan to expand it to 1.3 Mtpa. | [27] |
Solar PV | Moderate. Solar PV constitutes less than 1% of Singapore’s energy mix. | High. Used on rooftops of apartment buildings in Singapore. | There is a plan to increase solar PV capacity from 350 MW to 2 GW by 2030. | [28] |
Regional power grid | Moderate | High. There is a plan to construct an ASEAN power grid. | There is a plan to import 100 MW of low-carbon electricity from Malaysia for 2 years. | [29] |
Zero-emissions buildings | Moderate | High. Singapore launched the first zero-emissions building in Southeast Asia powered by green hydrogen in 2019. | National University of Singapore launched Singapore’s first zero-emission building powered by solar PV in 2019. | [30,31] |
Circular economy | Moderate. Singapore’s domestic and overall recycling rate was 17% and 52%, respectively in 2020. | High. Singapore issued its Zero Waste Masterplan in 2019. | Singapore plans to reduce waste sent to Semakau Landfill by 30% by 2030. | [32,33] |
Green hydrogen by renewable electricity | High. Green H2 eliminates most CO2 emissions. | Low. No commercial-scale green H2 production in Singapore. Purchase from overseas possible but costly. | Within Asia, Japan has announced plans to import hydrogen, whereas Australia plans to export hydrogen. South Korea and New Zealand have published their goals for a hydrogen economy. | [34,35,36,37] |
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles | High. HFCVs will eliminate mobile CO2 emission from vehicles. | Moderate. Currently, Singapore has no H2 infrastructure. However, development is possible due to its small area. | Despite no government policy favoring HFCVs, one local company plans to make HFCVs. | [38] |
Hydrogen bunkering for ships | High. As a bunkering center for ships, Singapore can benefit from H2 bunkering for zero-emissions ships. | Moderate. Singapore has no hydrogen production for transport. However, development is possible as part of industry modernization. | Singapore signed an SGD 23 million deal with Australia to develop maritime hydrogen. Shell is to trial hydrogen fuel cell for ships in Singapore. | [39,40] |
Carbon capture and utilization (Non EOR/EGR) | Moderate. The utilization of CO2-based chemicals is small compared to CO2-based fuels. Both are under R&D. | Moderate. Most CCU technologies are in the R&D stage and are not commercial. | CO2-based fuels such as methane and methanol are not cost-competitive and require breakthroughs in catalysis technology. | [41] |
Solar thermal | Low | Low. Limited roof space for solar thermal installation in Singapore’s buildings. May be seen as competition to solar PV. | Space heating not in demand due to Singapore’s hot climate. | [42] |
Wind energy | Low | Low. Wind speed around Singapore is too low for wind turbine. | Inadequate land and sea space for wind turbines. | [43] |
Hydroelectricity | Low | Low. Singapore lacks river for hydroelectricity. | Singapore can invest in hydroelectricity in Laos and use renewable energy credits to import electricity from Malaysia. | [44] |
Geothermal energy | Low | Low. No geothermal resources in Singapore. | Geothermal energy in SE Asia resides mainly in Indonesia and Philippines. | [45] |
Direct air capture | Low | Low. Technology not commercial. | Global DAC capacity is 9000 tons/y, mostly in US | [46,47] |
Sector | CO2 Mitigation Method |
---|---|
Power | Post-combustion CCS More solar PV Importing electricity from regional grids Hydrogen for power generation |
Refining | Reduce output of petroleum-based fuels Increase output to petrochemical plants Incorporate and integrate with biorefineries Post-combustion CCS |
Petrochemical | Post-combustion CCS Hydrogen for heat and as feedstock |
Transport | Replacing passenger cars by EV Replacing buses and heavy vehicles by HFCV Biofuels for aviation Hydrogen for ships |
Building and others | Zero-emissions buildings Adoption of a circular economy |
Basin | Distance to Singapore (km) | Oil Field (OOIP > 100 MMbbl) | Gas Field (OGIP > 1 Tcf) | Saline Aquifer |
---|---|---|---|---|
North Sumatra | 890 | Arun * | Various | |
800 | Kuala Langsa | |||
860 | S. Lhok Sukon | |||
810 | Offshore NSB | |||
740 | Rantau | |||
Central Sumatra | 210 | Bentu-Seng-Seat | Various | |
270 | Duri | |||
200 | Minas | |||
310 | Bangko | |||
260 | Bekasap | |||
310 | Mengala | |||
300 | Balam | |||
230 | Petapahan | |||
210 | Kotabatak | |||
270 | North Pulai | |||
South Sumatra | 400 | Kaliberau | Various | |
410 | Dayung | |||
440 | Suban * | |||
350 | Sumpal | |||
440 | Musi | |||
440 | Kuang | |||
470 | Kaji-Semoga | |||
500 | Sopa | |||
510 | Jene | |||
NW Java | 850 | Parigi | Various | |
740 | Cinta-ama | |||
720 | Krisna | |||
670 | Widuri | |||
720 | Bima | |||
690 | Farida-Zelda | |||
650 | Sundari | |||
650 | Nurbani | |||
890 | Ardjuna | |||
830 | Arimbi | |||
900 | Jatibarang | |||
West Natuna | 360 | Anoa * | ||
400 | Udang | |||
East Natuna | 690 | D-Alpha | Various |
Basin | Distance to Singapore (km) | Oil Field (OOIP > 100 MMbbl) | Gas Field (OGIP > 1 Tcf) | Saline Aquifer |
---|---|---|---|---|
Malay | 350 | Angsi * | Various | |
350 | Duyong | |||
510 | Jerneh | |||
510 | Lawit | |||
400 | Resak | |||
500 | Bintang | |||
500 | Tangga | |||
430 | Bujang | |||
390 | Seligi | |||
400 | Tapis | |||
380 | Pulai | |||
390 | Bekok | |||
420 | Guntong | |||
390 | Sotong | |||
390 | Belumut | |||
440 | Dulang | |||
Pengyu | 230 | Ruh-Ara | Various |
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Lau, H.C.; Ramakrishna, S.; Zhang, K.; Hameed, M.Z.S. A Decarbonization Roadmap for Singapore and Its Energy Policy Implications. Energies 2021, 14, 6455. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206455
Lau HC, Ramakrishna S, Zhang K, Hameed MZS. A Decarbonization Roadmap for Singapore and Its Energy Policy Implications. Energies. 2021; 14(20):6455. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206455
Chicago/Turabian StyleLau, Hon Chung, Seeram Ramakrishna, Kai Zhang, and Mohamed Ziaudeen Shahul Hameed. 2021. "A Decarbonization Roadmap for Singapore and Its Energy Policy Implications" Energies 14, no. 20: 6455. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206455