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Review

Harnessing Ecosystem Services from Invasive Alien Grass and Rush Species to Suppress their Aggressive Expansion in South Africa

by
Luambo Jeffrey Ramarumo
Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Rhodes University, P.O. Box 94, Makhanda 6140, South Africa
Sustainability 2022, 14(22), 15032; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215032
Submission received: 2 September 2022 / Revised: 7 November 2022 / Accepted: 9 November 2022 / Published: 14 November 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landscape Management Impact on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services)
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Abstract

:
Invasive alien species are regarded as one of the major driving forces of species extinction worldwide. To counteract the invasion’s spread and minimize species extinction risk, countries like South Africa are devoted to halting human-induced invasion using various means. The failed efforts to halt the invasion spread have forced South African scientists to start considering social controlling mechanisms, including utilization of these species without propagation as one of the alternatives. It is within this context that this review was aimed at making an inventory of invasive grass species that provide ecosystem services in South Africa. The required data were gathered through rigorous literature surveys and analysis. A total of 19 invasive alien grass and rush species, from 15 genera and two families that are associated with provision of ecosystems services, were documented. The reported species are associated with the provision of nine ecosystem services. The current study argued that although these species are associated with some ecosystem services, they can also threaten the ecological integrity of the ecosystems if not properly managed. Insights about ecosystem services associated with invasive alien grass and rush species are significant in balancing the complex environmental issues and livelihood requirements in rural South Africa.

1. Introduction

Invasive alien species are deemed to be one of the major driving forces in the extinction of native species worldwide [1,2,3,4,5,6]. Human beings are considered one of the main drivers of the rapid invasion’s spread [7,8,9,10]; therefore, to counteract this, countries such as South Africa are devoted to halting human-induced invasion [11,12] through various management strategies, such as biological, mechanical, and chemical control [13,14,15,16]. Governments throughout the world have invested billions of dollars in efforts towards winning the fight against invasion [17,18]. However, despite these concerted efforts, the literature shows that invasive alien species are still spreading at a rapid pace [19,20]. According to van Wilgen et al. [21], the spread of invasive alien plants in South Africa is increasing, with the appearance of an estimated number of 50 new species since 1980. Scientific knowledge remains the cornerstone in winning the fight against the invasion’s spread; however, Sinthumule and Mashau [22] have argued that using scientific knowledge is not the only strategy in obtaining a sustainable society. In addition, the failed efforts to halt the invasion’s spread have forced South African scientists to start considering social controlling mechanisms, such as utilization without propagation as one of the various efforts that has potential to suppress the spread of the invasion [17,23,24,25,26].
Invasive alien plants are defined as non-native (alien) species that are introduced to ecosystems and tend to spread rapidly, causing damage to the environment, human’s socio-economy, and human health [21,27,28,29]; for example, the introduction of Australian Acacias in South Africa has been associated with serve negative environmental effects such as the displacement of native species, changes to soil nutrients, and water loss [21]. There are regulations in place to manage and control invasive alien plant species in South Africa [21]; however, the spread is dramatically increasing countrywide [30]. In South Africa, invasive alien plants are regulated under the Alien and Invasive Species (A&IS) Regulations of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEMBA; Act 10 of 2004), although various other sector-specific Acts are applicable [31,32,33].
In South Africa, local people have been using various invasive alien grass species for various purposes since time immemorial [27,34,35,36,37,38]; however, the use of invasive alien grass species for livelihoods has not been well comprehended and factored into the invasion management plans [23,39,40]. Recent scientific evidence shows that invasive alien plant species play a key role in human livelihoods [36,37,38,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48]. Consistent with other plants that provide ecosystem services, some invasive alien species provide fundamental cultural value to humankind [49]. Shackleton and Shackleton [23] emphasize the need to appraise and comprehend both the benefits and losses associated with invasive alien species. Amores-Salvadó et al. [50] and Ekblom et al. [51] reiterated that factors influencing the benefits and losses of ecosystem services interlink together, and they should be both evaluated, whereas Heinrich et al. [52] suggested that the conversations about invasive alien plant species management regularly disregard the potential values that local people associate with these species.
The over-exploitation of natural resources is also referred to by natural science researchers as another cause of species extinction risk [53,54,55,56,57,58,59]. Having this in mind, in a study done by McGaw et al. [60], it was argued that invasive botanical resources, including invasive grass species, could subsidize or serve as an alternative to highly exploited useful native plants, particularly species with similar phytochemical constituents, in South Africa. Nevertheless, Vitule et al. [61] and Tassin and Kull [62] reported that the utilization of invasive botanical resources is part of today’s sociocultural transformation; similarly, Maroyi [63] reported that some invasive botanical resources offer intrinsic benefits. Moreover, McGaw et al. [60] contend that the utilization of invasive plants without propagation could suppress the invasion’s spread. In this context, this review not only serves as a fundamental step towards the crafting of better invasive alien species management policies in South Africa, but it could also provide insights to better understand the dynamics pertaining to the transition to a sustainable society.
Nsikani et al. [33] maintain that invasive alien species are an ecosystem service disrupter, whereas Jetz et al. [64] and Milanović et al. [65] argued that invasive alien species are part of biodiversity, and in some cases are of significant socio-economic value to communities. The above studies reaffirm the inherent conflicts not only between the lay-people and mandatory authorities, as articulated in various scientific studies [66,67,68], but also between scientific scholars themselves. Mugwedi [26] hypothesized that utilization of some invasive botanical resources could suppress the invasion spread. This hypothesis was reaffirmed by Ruwanza and Thondhlana [68], who asset that utilization could limit the expansion of some invasive alien species, particularly those that are of economic benefit to society. It is within this context that the current review aimed at establishing an inventory of invasive alien grass and rush species that are associated with the provision of ecosystem services in South Africa. This study forms part of multidisciplinary efforts to suppress the expansion of invasion in South Africa using various means, including utilization without propagation, as one of the alternatives. Furthermore, the current review is aligned with South Africa’s National Development Plan, particularly those aspects related to inclusive economic growth, and the sustainable use of natural resources for human upliftment.

2. Materials and Methods

The literature about invasive alien grass species that provide ecosystem services was sourced from electronic databases including Google Scholar, Research-Gate, Springer, Sabinet, Google, Wiley Online Library, Science Direct, Scopus and Web of Science databases, without being restricted by the publication date. The current review, however, only focused on invasive alien grass and rush species that are categorized as per section 70 of the South African’s National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act No. 10 of 2004 (NEMBA) and did not include those that are naturalized and still under review. In other words, the current review excluded naturalized and other grasses that are still to be categorized as invasive aliens in South Africa. All the databases were utilized to increase the possibilities of obtaining relevant comprehensive literature that incorporates the utilization of invasive alien grass and rush species in South Africa. The process enabled the creation of a database of published studies on the provision of ecosystem services by invasive alien grass and rush species; this was generated for the purpose of critically reviewing and analyzing information to be included in the current study. The International Plant Name Index (IPNI) database was also utilized to authentically validate the authority of the reported invasive alien grass and rush species. The following keywords were used during the literature searching: “ecosystem service benefits”, “invasive plant species”, “invasive grass species” and “problem weeds”. The literature-searching keywords were supplemented or used along with other words including: “Invasion management strategy”, “socio-cultural benefits”, “socio-economic benefits”, “socio-ecological benefits”, “traditional uses”, ‘livelihood benefits”, “utilization of invasive grass species”, “human well-being”, “indigenous knowledge systems”, “provision of ecosystem services”, “art crafting and making”, and “medicinal uses”. The literature search included the screening of relevant scientific reports, review papers, research papers, books, conference proceedings and theses published in the English language. A total of 433 articles were identified; amongst them, 247 articles were found to be relevant. After the analysis it was, however, discovered that only 23 out of 247 articles incorporated invasive grass and rush species that contain NEMBA Invasion Categories, and these were utilized. Invasive grass and rush plant species were grouped according to the ecosystem services they provide in the table and graph. Some qualitative and gathered literature was grouped according to its similarities, converted to the quantitative format, and then analyzed using percentages and presented in the form of a pie chart graph and table.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Taxonomic Nomenclature and Origin of Species

The current review documents 19 invasive alien grass and rush species, from 15 genera and two families, that are linked to the provision of ecosystem services that enhance human livelihood in the Republic of South Africa, as illustrated in Table 1 and Figure 1A. The number of invasive alien grass and rush species recorded in the current study does not necessarily represent all the utilized invasive alien grass and rush species in South Africa; however, those that were previously reported upon in various published scientific literature were included. The documented invasive alien grass and rush species include Agrostis castellana, Agrostis gigantean, Agrostis stolonifera, Ammophila arenaria, Arundo donax, Cortaderia jubata, Cortaderia selloana, Elymus repens, Festuca rubra, Glyceria maxima, Luzula multiflora, Paspalum quadrifarium, Pennisetum clandestinum, Pennisetum purpureum, Pennisetum setaceum, Pennisetum villosum, Poa pratensis, Sasa palmata and Sorghum halepense. The Poaceae family was found to be the most important botanical family with 94.7% (n = 18) useful invasive grass species, whereas Juncaceae contains only 5.3% (n = 1) rush species. High species richness within the family Poaceae demonstrates species diversity within this family [48,69,70,71,72,73]. The findings of this review are not unique, but serve as confirmation of similar findings in studies done by Schubert et al. [74] and Díaz and Jorquera [75]. The invasive alien grass and rush species presented in the current review originated from various regions and countries, including Asia, South and West Asia, Europe, Tropical Africa, North and West Africa, South America, North America (USA), Brazil, and Argentina (Table 1).

3.2. Ecosystem Service Benefits, Invasion Status and Legal Categories

Table 1 presents an inventory of all the reported invasive alien grass species known to provide ecosystem service benefits in South Africa. Out of the 247 studies that were thought to be relevant for the current study, 93 of them incorporated the provision of ecosystems service benefits by the invasive alien grass for human wellbeing and livelihood. Out of the 93 studies that incorporated the benefits of invasive alien grass species, only 23 studies highlighted their ecosystem services in South Africa, whereas 70 of these studies highlighted the provision of the same ecosystem services elsewhere. The limited number of studies reporting on ecosystem services associated with invasive alien grass species is influenced by the limited quantity of research about the value of invasive grass and rush species to human development in Southern Africa, as emphasized in studies by Jauro et al. [76] and Shayanowako et al. [77]. This point has also been affirmed in studies done by Constant and Taylor [78] and Arabi and Nahman [79].
Figure 1 classifies the ecosystem services that individuals of the invasive alien grass and rush species provide to humankind, their invasion statuses and their legal standing or categories in South Africa. The current review reveals that the reported invasive alien grass species are associated with the provision of nine ecosystem service benefits in South Africa. These ecosystem services range from being utilized as pasture, ornaments, musical flutes, mine dump stabilizers, medicines, lawns, flood attenuators, erosion controllers and construction materials (Figure 1A). The results of the current review reveal that some individual species contribute more than one ecosystem service. Therefore, A. donax (n = 5) was the most utilized invasive alien rush in South Africa, as measured by the number of ecosystem service benefits that it provides, followed by A. gigantea (n = 4) (Figure 1A). The provision of diverse ecosystem services by A. donax resembles its socio-economic and socio-cultural value to many communities in South Africa and worldwide [27,37,164]; however, its widespread invasion confirms that this species does disrupt the functionality of ecosystems through habitat transformation [165,166]. The legal standing of A. donax implies that this species should be controlled through invasive alien species control programs [38,98]. As like many invasive plant species that cause conflicts [66,67,68], the results of this review have clearly revealed that A. donax is also a conflict-making invasive alien grass. This classification is the result of analyzing its contributions in terms of the number of ecosystems services that it provides, its invasion status and its legal standing in South Africa. The four invasive alien plant species contributing equal ecosystem services included A. stolonifera (n = 3), E. repens (n = 3), P. clandestinum (n = 3) and P. pratensis (n = 3). Seven invasive alien species were reported to be contributing two ecosystems services each; these are A. castellana (n = 2), C. jubata (n = 2), C. selloana (n = 2), F. rubra (n = 2), P. purpureum (n = 2), P. setaceum (n = 2) and S. palmata (n = 2). The invasive species contributing the fewest ecosystem services are A. arenaria (n = 1), G. maxima (n = 1), L. multiflora (n = 1) and S. halepense (n = 2). Many of the recorded invasive alien grass and rush species differ morphologically, although the ecosystem services that they provide are more or less the same. This is not unusual, since the study performed by Mbambala et al. [103] has reaffirmed that various invasive alien plant species could be utilized for similar purpose. The invasion statuses of almost all of the reported invasive alien grass and rush species were found to be transformer (T) (48%) or potential transformer (Pt) (42%), while a small portion (10%) were special effect weeds (S) (5%) and ruderal and agrestal (R) (5%) (Figure 1B). The invasion statuses of these invasive alien grasses and rush prove that, although these species are associated with some livelihood benefits, they can also threaten the functionality of the ecosystems if not properly managed. The invasive status of the plant species demonstrates its aggressiveness towards native species, and the habitats where invasive alien species are likely to invade [38]. The results of the current review highlight that more than 42% of all the reported invasive alien grass and rush species fall under Category 1a of the Alien and Invasive Species (A&IS) Regulations of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEMBA Act 10 of 2004), followed by Category 1b (31.6%), then Category 2 (21.0%) and lastly by Category 3 (5.3%) (Figure 1C). According to Cronin et al. [167], Moshobane et al. [168] and Moshobane et al. [169], Category 1a includes species that require immediate and compulsory eradication, whereas Category 1b species are considered widespread, and must be controlled and eradicated wherever possible.
Arundo donax is a well-known useful invasive alien grass species, as indicated by the number of studies (n = 7) that cited it uses countrywide and elsewhere (Figure 2). The least useful of all known invasive grass species, as measured by the number of citations in South Africa, is S. palmata (n = 1). This is because A. donax has a wide distribution range countrywide and worldwide [35,170,171]. Furthermore, although limited studies have cited the uses of some species including P. purpureum and P. villosum in South Africa, more studies (n = 7) have cited their uses elsewhere. The low number of citation records for the invasive alien grass species P. villosum in South Africa corresponds with its use-value, as illustrated on Table 1 and Figure 1A. According to Atyosi et al. [27], the use-value is considered one of the pivotal components in determining the popularity of invasive alien plant species.

4. Conclusions

The current review is a comprehensive summary of the compiled information associated with the provision of ecosystem services by invasive alien grass and rush species in South Africa. The derived insights about ecosystem services associated with invasive alien grasses and rush are significant, not only in seeking to balance the complex environmental issues and livelihood needs in rural South Africa, but also in understanding the dynamics of the transition towards a sustainable society. The current study contributes to the multi-disciplinary effort to suppress the expansion of invasive alien species in South Africa, through various means, including utilization. Although studies have proven that some invasive alien grass and rush species do provide various ecosystem services, including being used as pasture, ornaments, mine dump stabilizers, medicines, lawns, flood attenuators, erosion controllers and construction materials in South Africa, more research studies examining the effectiveness of utilization without propagation as an alternative method for invasion management are required. It is worth noting that the invasion statuses of the invasive alien grass and rush species reported as useful prove that these species can also threaten the ecological integrity of ecosystems, if not properly managed. Documenting detailed information about how these species provide ecosystem services in South Africa is a substantial step towards crafting appropriate management plans and informed policy directions, which would help to maintain a balance between livelihoods and environmental well-being. It is within this context that the current study supports the scientifically accepted notion that the value of invasive alien species is interlinked with their uses. Furthermore, the hypothesis that the utilization of invasive plant species could suppress their spread should not be ignored. This means there is still room for further investigatory studies that focus on utilization without propagation as an alternative to the suppression of the invasion. This study argues that improved coordination between local communities that utilize invasive alien grass and rush species and mandated authorities, on issues pertaining to invasion management, policy directions and science, could help resolve and calm the conflicts highlighted in some studies. A study on the indigenous knowledge associated with invasive alien grass species could provide baseline information required for incorporating stakeholder values that will inform deliberative management plans and policy directions in South African biosphere reserves.

Funding

This research was funded by the Directorate of Research and the Department of Environmental Science at Rhodes University, South Africa.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Sheunesu Ruwanza and Gladman Thondhlana for reviewing the manuscript draft.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Classification of ecosystem services provided by invasive alien grass and rush species, their South African invasion statuses, and legal categories. (Key: Pt, potential transformer; R, ruderal and agrestal; S, special effect weed and T, transformer).
Figure 1. Classification of ecosystem services provided by invasive alien grass and rush species, their South African invasion statuses, and legal categories. (Key: Pt, potential transformer; R, ruderal and agrestal; S, special effect weed and T, transformer).
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Figure 2. Comparison of studies that have reported the use of invasive alien grass species in South Africa and elsewhere.
Figure 2. Comparison of studies that have reported the use of invasive alien grass species in South Africa and elsewhere.
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Table
Table 1. An inventory of useful invasive alien grass and rush species in South Africa (Category 1a, invasive alien grass species that required immediate compulsory control; Category 1b, invasive alien grass species that should be controlled or eradicated where possible; Category 2, invasive alien grass species that must be allowed only in specified areas under controlled conditions; Category 3, invasive alien grass species that must be controlled within riparian zones, and therefore, there should be no further cultivation allowed; Pt, potential transformer—plant species that invade natural or semi-natural habitats and have the potential to dominate vegetation layers; R, ruderal and agrestal—plant species that are normally weeds in waste and cultivated areas; S, special effect weed—plants that can slowly degrade the biodiversity value without dominating; T, transformer— plants that can easily alter the integrity and functionality of ecosystems).
Table 1. An inventory of useful invasive alien grass and rush species in South Africa (Category 1a, invasive alien grass species that required immediate compulsory control; Category 1b, invasive alien grass species that should be controlled or eradicated where possible; Category 2, invasive alien grass species that must be allowed only in specified areas under controlled conditions; Category 3, invasive alien grass species that must be controlled within riparian zones, and therefore, there should be no further cultivation allowed; Pt, potential transformer—plant species that invade natural or semi-natural habitats and have the potential to dominate vegetation layers; R, ruderal and agrestal—plant species that are normally weeds in waste and cultivated areas; S, special effect weed—plants that can slowly degrade the biodiversity value without dominating; T, transformer— plants that can easily alter the integrity and functionality of ecosystems).
Family NameBotanical NameCommon NameNEMBA/CARA CategoriesInvasion StatusProvision of Ecosystem ServiceGeographic OriginCitations (A = Local Uses Records; B = Use Records Elsewhere)
PoaceaeAgrostis castellana Boiss. & Reut.Bent grass1aPtUsed as lawns and pastureEurope, North Africa, and AsiaA: [38,43]; B: [44,80]
PoaceaeAgrostis gigantea RothBlack bent grass, Redtop1aTUsed as pasture, lawns, for mine dump stabilization, and erosion controlEurope and AsiaA: [38,48,81,82,83]; B: [44,84,85,86,87,88]
PoaceaeAgrostis stolonifera L.Creeping bent grass1aTUsed as pasture, lawns, and erosion controlEurope and AsiaA: [34,36,38,48,82]; B: [44,89,90]
PoaceaeAmmophila arenaria (L.) LinkMarram grass2SUsed for erosion controlEurope, North Africa, and Western Asia.A: [34,38,91,92,93]; B: [94,95,96,97]
PoaceaeArundo donax L.Giant reed1bTUsed for ornamental purposes, construction, flood attenuation, mine damp stabilization and musical flutesAsia (Middle East)A: [27,34,36,37,38,93,98]; B: [41,42,44,99,100,101,102]
PoaceaeCortaderia jubata (Lemoine) StapfPampas grass, Purple pampas1bTUsed for ornamental purposes, mine dump stabilization, medicineSouth AmericaA: [34,36,38,93,103]; B: [44,104,105,106]
PoaceaeCortaderia selloana (Schult. & Schult.f.) Asch. & Graebn.Silwergras1b PtUsed for ornamental, and mine dump stabilizationSouth AmericaA: [34,36,38,93]; B: [102,105,106,107]
PoaceaeElymus repens (L.) GouldTwitch, Quick Grass, Quitch1aPtUsed for ornaments, erosion control and medicineEurope, North Africa, and AsiaA: [34,36,37]; B: [44,108,109,110]
PoaceaeFestuca rubra L.Red fescue, Creeping red fescue1aPtUsed as lawns and for erosion controlEurope, North Africa, Asia, and North AmericaA: [34,38,48]; B: [44,111,112,113]
PoaceaeGlyceria maxima (Hartm.) Holmb.Reed meadow grass, Reed sweet grass2TUsed as pastureEurope, and AsiaA: [34,36,38,114,115,116]; B: [90,117,118,119,120,121,122]
JuncaceaeLuzula multiflora (Ehrh.) Lej.Woodrush1aPtUsed as pastureEurope, North Africa, Asia, and North AmericaA: [38,123]; B: [124,125,126,127]
PoaceaePaspalum quadrifarium Lam.Tussock paspalum1aPtUsed for ornamentsBrazil and ArgentinaA: [34,36,38,128]; B: [128,129,130,131,132]
PoaceaePennisetum clandestinum Hochst. ex Chiov.Kikuyu grass1bTUsed as pasture, lawns, and for erosion controlTropical AfricaA: [34,38,133]; B: [44,134,135,136,137,138]
PoaceaePennisetum purpureum Schumach.Elephant or Napier grass2PtUsed as pasture and for ornamental purposesTropical AfricaA: [34,38]; B: [44,139,140,141,142,143,144]
PoaceaePennisetum setaceum (Forssk.) Chiov.Fountain grass1bTUsed for ornamental and erosion control purposesNorth and North-East Africa, and South-West AsiaA: [34,36,38]; B: [145,146,147,148,149,150]
PoaceaePennisetum villosum R. Br. ex Fresen.Feathertop1bRUsed for ornamentsEthiopiaA: [34,36,38]; B: [151,152,153,154,155,156,157]
PoaceaePoa pratensis L.Kentucky bluegrass1aTUsed as pasture, erosion control and as lawnsEurope, North Africa, Asia, North AmericaA: [34,36,38]; B: [44]
PoaceaeSasa palmata (hort. ex Burb.) E.G. CamusDwarf yellow-striped bamboo3PtUsed for ornamental and erosion control purposesEast AsiaA: [38]; B: [158,159,160,161]
PoaceaeSorghum halepense (L.) Pers.Johnson grass, Aleppo grass2TUsed as pastureMediterraneanA: [34,36,38,162,163]; B: [44]
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Ramarumo, L.J. Harnessing Ecosystem Services from Invasive Alien Grass and Rush Species to Suppress their Aggressive Expansion in South Africa. Sustainability 2022, 14, 15032. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215032

AMA Style

Ramarumo LJ. Harnessing Ecosystem Services from Invasive Alien Grass and Rush Species to Suppress their Aggressive Expansion in South Africa. Sustainability. 2022; 14(22):15032. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215032

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Ramarumo, Luambo Jeffrey. 2022. "Harnessing Ecosystem Services from Invasive Alien Grass and Rush Species to Suppress their Aggressive Expansion in South Africa" Sustainability 14, no. 22: 15032. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215032

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