Differential Exposure to Hazardous Air Pollution in the United States: A Multilevel Analysis of Urbanization and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Deprivation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Hypothesis 1: The greater the population size and level of regional economic activity, the higher the level of HAP exposure hazard in the region.
- Hypothesis 2: The greater the population size and level of regional economic activity, the higher the level of socioeconomic deprivation among the local neighborhoods.
- Hypothesis 3: The higher the level of neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation, the higher the level of HAP exposure, after adjustment for population size and level of economic activity.
2. Research Design and Methods
2.1. Assessment of HAP Exposure
2.2. Measurement of Socioeconomic Deprivation
- Unemployment as a percentage of those aged 16 and over who are economically active.
- Households without access to a car (car lease or ownership), as a percentage of all households.
- Residential household renting, as a percentage of all households.
- Percentage of households with “crowded housing,” i.e., the number of residents exceeds the number of rooms within the household.
2.3. Measures of Urbanization and Economic Activity
2.4. Multilevel Statistical Modeling
3. Results
3.1. Variation in HAP Exposure Risk
Tract-Level Descriptive Statistics (N = 64,524) | Mean | Std. Dev. | Percentiles | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5th | 25th | 50th | 75th | 99th | |||
Population Size of Tracts’ Host County [000s] | 1,049.71 | 1,906.97 | 16.87 | 95.79 | 401.61 | 1,003.16 | 9,937.74 |
Density per Sq Mile Census Tract | 5,215.51 | 11,997.51 | 17.04 | 234.18 | 1,981.92 | 5,204.29 | 61,564.29 |
Townsend Index-Tract | (0.00) | 3.08 | (3.06) | (2.11) | (0.99) | 1.14 | 10.90 |
Number Employed in County, 2005 [000s] | 436.19 | 763.05 | 3.78 | 32.03 | 163.77 | 473.59 | 3,805.77 |
Aggregate Wage Payroll (2005) [$000] | 19,016 | 34,796 | 97 | 955 | 5,861 | 18,893 | 162,202 |
Avg. Wages per Employee in County 2005 [$000] | 36.05 | 9.42 | 23.51 | 29.26 | 34.97 | 40.81 | 66.37 |
County-Level Descriptive Statistics (N = 3,138) | Mean | Std. Dev. | 5th | 25th | 50th | 75th | 99th |
Population Size of Tracts’ Host County [000s] | 934.99 | 3,047.51 | 29.95 | 112.28 | 251.11 | 636.22 | 11,745.13 |
Number Employed in County, 2005 [000s] | 364.03 | 1,330.98 | 4.77 | 21.69 | 65.36 | 195.73 | 5,507.85 |
Aggregate Wage Payroll (2005) [$000] | 14,063 | 64,340 | 104 | 524 | 1,728 | 5,784 | 233,483 |
Avg. Wages per Employee in County, 2005 [$000] | 27.71 | 6.90 | 19.26 | 23.44 | 26.64 | 30.63 | 50.26 |
Tract-Level Outcomes: | Mean | Std. Dev. | 5th | 25th | 50th | 75th | 99th |
Respiratory Health Hazard (2005) | 2.30 | 1.96 | 0.44 | 0.96 | 1.80 | 2.99 | 9.87 |
Neurological Health Hazard (2005) | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.32 |
Cancer Risks per MM Population (2005) | 50.11 | 24.38 | 21.32 | 33.89 | 45.39 | 59.56 | 135.79 |
3.2. HAP Chemical Exposure Hazard by Urbanization and Economic Activity
HAP Health Hazard Metrics | Ratio of HAP Exposure Risk at Selected Percentiles to Risk at 20th Percentile | County Population Size (2000) | Tract Population Density (2000) | Tract Townsend Index | County Employment (2005) | County Payroll per Employee (2005) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Respiratory Health Exposure Hazard | Ratio 80/20 | 2.73 | 2.85 | 1.73 | 3.93 | 2.65 |
Ratio 95/20 | 2.81 | 4.51 | 2.94 | 4.39 | 3.23 | |
Ratio 97/20 | 5.63 | 6.3 | 3.56 | 5.52 | 3.64 | |
Neurological Health Exposure Hazard | Ratio 80/20 | 1.45 | 2.11 | 1.57 | 2.13 | 1.78 |
Ratio 95/20 | 2.18 | 3.29 | 2.59 | 3.25 | 1.84 | |
Ratio 97/20 | 1.91 | 4.21 | 2.82 | 2.26 | 1.76 | |
Cancer Risk Factor | Ratio 80/20 | 1.82 | 1.85 | 1.38 | 2.17 | 1.83 |
Ratio 95/20 | 1.99 | 2.63 | 2.01 | 2.48 | 2.11 | |
Ratio 97/20 | 3.48 | 3.08 | 2.32 | 3.49 | 2.11 |
3.3. Differential HAP Exposure Related to Neighborhood SED: Multilevel Model Estimates
HAP Exposure Hazards | Respiratory | Neurological | Cancer |
---|---|---|---|
Tract Population Density (Log 10 Density/Sq M) | 0.385 *** | 0.0121 *** | 5.797 *** |
−0.00538 | −0.00057 | −0.0687 | |
Townsend Index-Tract | 0.0905 *** | 0.00312 *** | 1.185 *** |
−0.00138 | −0.000146 | −0.0176 | |
County Population (2000) Log 10 | 0.247 *** | 0.00353 | 5.947 *** |
−0.031 | −0.00334 | −0.297 | |
Annual Wage per Employee in Tract’s County ’05 | 0.0170 *** | 0.000331 | 0.308 *** |
−0.0026 | −0.00028 | −0.0247 | |
Cross-level Tract SED & County Population Size | 0.0138 *** | −2.94 × 10−6 | 0.510 *** |
−0.00079 | −8.41 × 10−5 | −0.0102 | |
New England Region | 0.357 *** | −0.00992 | 1.792 * |
−0.11 | −0.0118 | −0.983 | |
Mid-Atlantic Region | −0.0684 | 0.00163 | 3.617 *** |
−0.0823 | −0.00887 | −0.746 | |
East North Central | −0.207 *** | 0.0132 * | 3.057 *** |
−0.0633 | −0.00682 | −0.59 | |
West North Central | −0.0189 | 0.000438 | 4.110 *** |
−0.0609 | −0.00655 | −0.58 | |
South Atlantic | 0.567 *** | −0.00275 | 10.68 *** |
−0.0607 | −0.00653 | −0.57 | |
East South Central | 0.166 ** | 0.0217 *** | 12.37 *** |
−0.0657 | −0.00707 | −0.618 | |
West South Central | −0.0179 | −0.00828 | 8.470 *** |
−0.063 | −0.00678 | −0.595 | |
Pacific Region | 0.854 *** | −0.00184 | 4.812 *** |
−0.0812 | −0.00874 | −0.749 | |
Constant | −1.372 *** | −0.00616 | −21.31 *** |
West Region-Intercept | −0.127 | −0.0136 | −1.21 |
Model Fit Statistics: | |||
ll_0 | −85,224 | 67,237 | −252,964 |
ll | −76,808 | 68,045 | −240,725 |
df_m | 13 | 13 | 13 |
Number Counties | 3,119 | 3,119 | 3,119 |
rho | 0.485 | 0.494 | 0.294 |
sigma_e | 0.755 | 0.08 | 9.706 |
sigma_u | 0.733 | 0.0791 | 6.27 |
chi2_c | 67,085 | 21,898 | 42,053 |
ll_c | −110,351 | 57,096 | −261,752 |
chi2 | 16,831 | 1,616 | 24,477 |
Tract SED | Predicted HAP Exposure at 20th Percentile County Population Size | Predicted HAP Exposure at 80th Percentile County Population Size | Predicted HAP Exposure at 95th Percentile County Population Size | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Percentiles: | Resp | Neuro | Cancer | Resp | Neuro | Cancer | Resp | Neuro | Cancer |
20th | 1.43 | 0.06 | 38.80 | 1.73 | 0.06 | 45.75 | 1.73 | 0.06 | 44.01 |
80th | 1.77 | 0.07 | 42.65 | 2.11 | 0.07 | 51.04 | 2.38 | 0.08 | 58.91 |
95th | 2.16 | 0.08 | 46.91 | 2.54 | 0.09 | 56.89 | 3.09 | 0.09 | 75.36 |
99th | 2.53 | 0.10 | 50.97 | 2.95 | 0.10 | 62.46 | 3.77 | 0.11 | 91.04 |
Ratio 80/20 | 1.25 | 1.23 | 1.10 | 1.23 | 1.21 | 1.12 | 1.37 | 1.20 | 1.34 |
Ratio 95/20 | 1.52 | 1.48 | 1.21 | 1.47 | 1.45 | 1.24 | 1.79 | 1.43 | 1.71 |
Ratio 99/20 | 1.77 | 1.73 | 1.31 | 1.709 | 1.671 | 1.365 | 2.18 | 1.65 | 2.07 |
Progressive excess risk associated with increased SED, for census tracts at the 95th and 80th percentile of County population size: | Case Contrast Assumptions: Mid Atlantic Region; Median Tract Population Density & County Economic Activity; and varying levels of County Population Size and Tract SED | ||||||||
Resp | Neuro | Cancer | |||||||
Ratio 80/20 | 1.122 | 0.993 | 1.200 | ||||||
Ratio 95/20 | 1.214 | 0.988 | 1.377 | ||||||
Ratio 99/20 | 1.276 | 0.985 | 1.515 |
4. Discussion
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
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Appendix
Census Division: | Counties (Pct) | Population (Pct) | Tracts (Pct) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
New England | 67 | 2.1 | 14,238,888 | 4.8 | 3,203 | 4.9 |
Middle Atlantic | 150 | 4.8 | 40,332,259 | 13.7 | 9,918 | 15.2 |
East North Central | 437 | 13.9 | 46,031,860 | 15.7 | 11,328 | 17.4 |
West North Central | 618 | 19.7 | 19,697,992 | 6.7 | 5,090 | 7.8 |
South Atlantic | 589 | 18.8 | 55,182,959 | 18.8 | 10,781 | 16.5 |
East South Central | 364 | 11.6 | 17,480,032 | 6.0 | 3,938 | 6.0 |
West South Central | 470 | 15.0 | 33,281,974 | 11.3 | 7,104 | 10.9 |
Mountain | 281 | 8.9 | 19,823,587 | 6.8 | 4,255 | 6.5 |
Pacific | 165 | 5.3 | 47,610,448 | 16.2 | 9,549 | 14.7 |
Total | 3,141 | 100.0 | 293,679,999 | 100.0 | 65,166 | 100.0 |
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Young, G.S.; Fox, M.A.; Trush, M.; Kanarek, N.; Glass, T.A.; Curriero, F.C. Differential Exposure to Hazardous Air Pollution in the United States: A Multilevel Analysis of Urbanization and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Deprivation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 2204-2225. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9062204
Young GS, Fox MA, Trush M, Kanarek N, Glass TA, Curriero FC. Differential Exposure to Hazardous Air Pollution in the United States: A Multilevel Analysis of Urbanization and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Deprivation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2012; 9(6):2204-2225. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9062204
Chicago/Turabian StyleYoung, Gary S., Mary A. Fox, Michael Trush, Norma Kanarek, Thomas A. Glass, and Frank C. Curriero. 2012. "Differential Exposure to Hazardous Air Pollution in the United States: A Multilevel Analysis of Urbanization and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Deprivation" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 9, no. 6: 2204-2225. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9062204