Hot Weather and Violence Against Women: A Global Scoping Review
Abstract
1. Introduction
- What are the main trends reported for high temperatures and VAW?
- Are there evidence gaps that need to be explored further under a changing climate?
- What types of violence (for example, physical, emotional, sexual) are most reported in connection with hot weather events?
- What are the sources of primary and secondary data used in the studies?
- How do socioeconomic status, literacy rates, climate characteristics, and cultural factors mediate VAW?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy and Databases
2.2. Search Terms
2.3. Source of Evidence Selection and Data Extraction
3. Results
3.1. Study Characteristics
3.2. Data Sources and Study Designs
3.3. Association Between Hot Weather and Violence Against Women
Association Between Hot Weather and Different Types of VAW
3.4. Risk Factors Affecting VAW
4. Discussion
5. Limitations, Future Research, and Implications for Policy and Practice
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria |
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References | Climate Zone and Location | Population Characteristics | Temperature Contexts | Design/Methodology | Groups at Increased Risk | Findings |
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(Cohn, 1993) [19] | Continental climate United States | Victims of rape and domestic violence reported to police during the years 1985, 1987 and 1988 | Daily average temperature ranged from—32 °C to 39 °C | Quantitative approach, forward multiple linear regression analysis of call data from Minneapolis Police Department (1985, 1987, 1988) | Women in domestic settings | Higher ambient temperatures, especially above 25 °C, are positively correlated with an increase in domestic violence incidents. Domestic violence is more likely to occur in the evening and at night, while rape incidents peak at night and on weekends. |
(Henke & Hsu, 2020) [22] | Subtropical and continental climate United States (263 counties) | Women in intimate relationships, including various racial demographics and socioeconomic statuses | Average daily maximum temperature of 18.47 °C | Quantitative research method: the study utilized police report data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) alongside county-level gender wage data, temperature reports, and demographic controls | Women in low-income households, women in interracial relationships where significant income disparities exist | Hot weather is associated with increased IPV, with each 1 °C rise linked to approximately a 1% increase in cases. An increase in women’s relative wages can reduce the risks. |
(Nguyen, 2024) [15] | Tropical, semi-arid, subtropical, and highland climate 34 developing countries (Burkina Faso, Benin, Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Cameroon, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Gabon, Ghana, Guatemala, Honduras, Haiti, India, Jordan, Kenya, Cambodia, Kyrgyz Rep., Mali, Myanmar, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Namibia, Nepal, Peru, Pakistan, Sierra Leone, Chad, Togo, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe | Women aged 15 to 49 years in rural and urban areas | Average temperature across the regions: 23.28 °C (standard deviation 5.936) | Quantitative analysis using Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and Climatic Research Unit Time Series (CRUTS) data from 2000 to 2018 | Rural women, women from poor households, low-educated women, women with low-educated partners | An increase of 5.94 °C elevates the risk of any form of IPV by 3.7%. |
(Otrachshenko et al., 2021) [18] | Subarctic, continental climate 79 regions in Russia | Women and men in Russia from 1989 to 2015: focus on violent mortality, with an analysis of gender and age differences | Extreme hot temperatures exceeding 25 degrees Celsius and cold temperatures falling below –23 degrees Celsius | Panel data analysis using regional-level data from 1989 to 2015 | Women, especially those in domestic settings and regions with high unemployment and alcohol consumption rates | The findings show a gendered impact, with women more vulnerable to violence on hot days, particularly on weekends and in regions with alcohol abuse and unemployment. |
(Rotton & Cohn, 2001) [20] | Continental climate United States | Domestic violence victims as reported in police call reports | Temperature range: 15 °C to 35 °C, with analysis of heat waves and seasonal variations | Analysis of police service calls in 1987 and 1988, examining the relationship between temperature and rates of domestic violence | Women in domestic settings | Domestic violence incidents were correlated with higher temperatures (over 30 °C). |
(Sanz-Barbero et al., 2018) [17] | Mediterranean climate Spain | Women involved in intimate partner femicides (IPF), reports of IPV and 016 IPV telephone help line calls in the Community of Madrid from 05/01 to 09/30 in the years 2008–2016 | During the months of May through September of 2008–2016, the average maximum temperature during the heat waves was 35.8 °C in Madrid | Ecological, longitudinal time series study | Married women | The risk of Intimate partner femicide increased three days after the heatwave, [RR(IC95%):1.40(1.00–1.97)]. Police reports of IPV increased one day after the heatwave [RR (IC95%):1.02(1.00–1.03)]. Help line calls increased five days after the heatwave [RR(IC95%):1.01(1.00–1.03)]. |
(Stevens et al., 2024) [16] | Subtropical climate Australia | Reported crimes of victims of violent crimes, including domestic violence, non-domestic violence, and sexual assaults | The average daily mean maximum temperature over the study period was 23.49 °C | Negative binomial regression models were applied to assess the relationship between temperature, humidity, and different types of violent crimes (13 years of data 2006 to 2018) | Victims of domestic violence, particularly in indoor settings, people living in low socioeconomic status (SES) areas, especially those without access to air conditioners | Domestic violence increased with rising temperatures, particularly in indoor settings |
(Xu et al., 2021) [21] | Temperate, subtropical, continental climate United States (7 large Cities) | Cases of sex offenses (sodomy, fondling and rape) from 2007–2017 | The average daily mean temperature for all observed days in the seven cities was 15.4 ± 9.2 °C, varying from 11.0 ± 11.1 °C in Chicago to 21.3 ± 7.8 °C in Tucson. | Time-stratified case-crossover design from 2007–2017 | Women (90% of victims) and victims of sodomy, fondling and rape | An increase in daily mean temperature of 5 °C was associated with a 4.5% increase in sex offenses over the following 0–8 days. Increased risks were linked to offenses occurring in open spaces, educational institutions, and streets rather than residences |
(Zhu et al., 2023) [14] | Tropical, sub-tropical, arid, temperate climate India, Nepal, Pakistan (South Asia/LMICs) | women aged 15 to 49 years | The annual temperature ranges were mostly between 20 °C and 30 °C | Cross-sectional study which used data from the Demographic and Health Survey (194,871 ever-partnered women aged 15 to 49 years) | Women from rural areas, lower household incomes, partially built homes as well as women with younger partners or partners with low educational background or lower income were considered to be at risk | An increase in IPV prevalence with higher annual mean temperature was found, with a 1 °C increase in the annual mean temperature associated with a 4.5% increase in IPV prevalence |
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Mulambo, C.H.; Thakur, R.; Mathew, S. Hot Weather and Violence Against Women: A Global Scoping Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22071069
Mulambo CH, Thakur R, Mathew S. Hot Weather and Violence Against Women: A Global Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025; 22(7):1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22071069
Chicago/Turabian StyleMulambo, Chiratidzo Hope, Rishu Thakur, and Supriya Mathew. 2025. "Hot Weather and Violence Against Women: A Global Scoping Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 22, no. 7: 1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22071069
APA StyleMulambo, C. H., Thakur, R., & Mathew, S. (2025). Hot Weather and Violence Against Women: A Global Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(7), 1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22071069