Analysis of Assessment Methods for Detecting Nicotine Residue and Its Impact on Humans: A Systematic Review
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Registration and Guidelines
2.2. Search Strategy
2.3. Paper Selection
2.4. Data Extraction
3. Results
3.1. Study Characteristics
Title of the Study | Author(s) | Year of Publication | Country | Target Population | Biological Matrix or Detection Samples | Biomarkers | Number of Participants | Category of Assessment Method(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A simple and rapid method for the determination of nicotine in third-hand smoke by liquid chromatography and its application for the assessment of contaminated outdoor communal areas | Samira Inácia Santos e Silva, Paul Bowdler, Danielle Giltrow, Stephanie Riddell and Kevin C. Honeychurch [61] | 2015 | UK | Individuals in outdoor communal areas, particularly those near public entrance ways, where thirdhand smoke (THS) contamination can occur due to smoking activities | Dust-wipe samples | Nicotine | N/A | Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and UV detection/ Environmental assessments |
Adhesion and Removal of Thirdhand Smoke from Indoor Fabrics: A Method for Rapid Assessment and Identification of Chemical Repositories | Giovanna L. Pozuelos, Peyton Jacob, Suzaynn F. Schick, Esther E. Omaiye and Prue Talbot [47] | 2021 | USA | Both smokers and non-smokers who are exposed to THS | Indoor fabrics/upholstery cotton, terry cloth, upholstery polyester, and wool carpet | Nicotine; myosmine; 2,39-bipyridine; cotinine; N-formylnornicotine; nicotelline; NNN; NNK; NNA | 4 | LC–MS/MS, fluorescence intensity, HPLC–(high-performance liquid chromatography), autofluorescence/ Environmental assessments |
Assessing second-hand and thirdhand tobacco smoke exposure in Canadian infants using questionnaires, biomarkers, and machine learning | Jaclyn Parks, Kathleen E. McLean, Lawrence McCandless, Russell J. de Souza, Jeffrey R. Brook, James Scott, Stuart E. Turvey, Piush J. Mandhane, Allan B. Becker, Meghan B. Azad, Theo J. Moraes, Diana L. Lefebvre, Malcolm R. SearsPadmaja Subbarao and Tim K. Takaro [55] | 2021 | Canada | Infants | Urine, machine learning | Cotinine, trans-3′-hydroxycotinine (3HC) | N/A | Liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Machine learning/ Epidemiological assessment |
Cellular effects of thirdhand tobacco smoke from smokers homes | Luciana Rizzieri Figueiró, Rafael Linden, Ana Luiza Ziulkoski and Denise Conceição Mesquita Dantas [53] | 2017 | Brazil | Adults | Cellulose paper, questionnaire | Nicotine | 12 | Questionnaire, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), cell treatment and cytotoxicity assays/ Cellular analysis |
Changes and stability of hand nicotine levels in children of smokers: Associations with urinary biomarkers, reported child tobacco smoke exposure, and home smoking bans | Georg E. Matt, Ashley L. Merianos, Lara Stone, Chase Wullenweber, Penelope J.E. Quintana, Eunha Hoh, Nathan G. Dodder, Nicolas Lopez Galvez, E. Melinda Mahabee-Gittens [31] | 2023 | USA | Children (0–11 yrs old) | Hand wipes, urine, survey | Nicotine, cotinine, trans-3′-hydroxycotinine, nicotelline N-oxides, and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol | 129 | Electronic survey assessments/liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)/ Human biological samples assessment |
Comparative study of comprehensive gas chromatography–nitrogen chemiluminescence detection and gas chromatography–ion trap–tandem mass spectrometry for determining nicotine and carcinogen organic nitrogen compounds in thirdhand tobacco smoke | Noelia Ramírez, Laura Vallecillos, Alastair C. Lewis, Francesc Borrull, Rosa M. Marcé, Jacqueline F. Hamilton [62] | 2015 | UK | Non-smokers who are exposed to THS including infants | Dust sample | Nicotine (16 organic nitrogen carcinogens found in tobacco smoke, such as aromatic amines, nitrocompounds, N-nitrosamines, tobacco-specific nitrosamines, and nicotine as a tobacco marker) | 18 | Gas chromatography coupled to ion trap mass spectrometry detection; two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to a nitrogen chemiluminescence detector (GC–× GC–NCD)/ Environmental assessments |
Contamination of surfaces in children’s homes with nicotine and the potent carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamine NNK | Ashley L. Merianos, Georg E. Matt, Timothy M. Stone, Roman A. Jandarov, Eunha Hoh, Nathan G. Dodder, Penelope J. E. Quintana, Nicolas Lopez-Galvez, Lara Stone and E. Melinda Mahabee-Gittens [32] | 2023 | USA | Children who live with smokers | Surface wipe samples, urine samples | Nicotine, cotinine | 84 | Questionnaire, LC– MS–MS/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Cotton pillows: A novel field method for assessment of thirdhand smoke pollution | Georg E. Matta, Eunha Hohb, Penelope J.E. Quintanab, Joy M. Zakarianc, Jayson Arceo [48] | 2018 | USA | Former smokers and their homes | Cotton pillow | Nicotine | 12 | Isotope-dilution liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry/ Environmental assessments |
Detection of nicotine as an indicator of tobacco smoke by direct analysis in real time (DART) tandem mass spectrometry | Akos Kuki, Lajos Nagy, Tibor Nagy, Miklos Zsuga, Sandor Keki [49] | 2014 | Hungary | Smokers, non-smokers, and individuals exposed to second-hand and thirdhand smoke | Clothes, cups | Nicotine | N/A | Direct analysis in real time (DART) mass spectrometry/ Environmental assessments |
Detection of thirdhand smoke on clothing fibres with a surface acoustic wave gas sensor | Chi-Yung Cheng; Shih-Shen Huang; Chia-Min Yang; Kea-Tiong Tang; Da-Jeng Yao [20] | 2016 | Taiwan | Individuals exposed to thirdhand smoke | Clothing fibres | Nicotine | N/A | Surface acoustic wave (SAW) gas sensor/ Environmental assessments |
Differential associations of hand nicotine and urinary cotinine with children’s exposure to tobacco smoke and clinical outcomes | E. Melinda Mahabee-Gittens, Ashley L. Merianos, Roman A. Jandarov, Penelope J.E. Quintana, Eunha Hoh, Georg E. Matt [33] | 2021 | USA | Children/Parents | Hand wipes, urine, questionnaire | Nicotine | 276 | LC–MS/MS, questionnaires/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Electronic cigarette chemicals transfer from a vape shop to a nearby business in a multiple-tenant retail building | Careen Khachatoorian, Peyton Jacob III, Neal L Benowitz, Prue Talbot [51] | 2018 | USA | N/A | Cotton towel, paper towel, terry cloth and two air filters | Nicotine | N/A | Lc–MS/MS Environmental assessments |
Exposure and Risk Assessment of Second- and Third Hand Tobacco Smoke Using Urinary Cotinine Levels in South Korea | Jiyeon Yang, Shervin Hashemi, Wonseok Han, Yoojin Song and Youngwook Lim [34] | 2022 | Korea | Individuals living in South Korea who are non-smokers or former smokers living with at least one smoker in the same family | Urine, questionnaire | Cotinine | 3203 | Standardized laboratory techniques such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS)/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Hand nicotine as an independent marker of thirdhand smoke pollution in children’s environments | E. Melinda Mahabee-Gittens, Ashley L. Merianos, Lara Stone, Chase A. Wullenweber, Penelope J.E. Quintana, Eunha Hoh, Nathan G. Dodder, Nicolas Lopez-Galvez, Georg E. Matt [13] | 2022 | USA | 0–11 yrs old | Hand wipes/urine | Nicotine (parent compound), cotinine and 3HC | 175 | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), questionnaires/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Handwashing Results in Incomplete Nicotine Removal from Fingers of Individuals who Smoke: A Randomized Controlled Experiment | Thomas F. Northrup, Angela L. Stotts, Robert Suchting, Amir M. Khan, Michelle R. Klawans, Charles Green, Eunha Hoh, Melbourne F. Hovell, Georg E. Matt, Penelope J. E. Quintana [35] | 2021 | USA | Adults who smoke and visit infants in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) | Hand wipes and skin | Nicotine | 14 | After participants washed or sanitized their hands, three separate fingers (thumb, index, and middle) were wiped at various time points to assess the efficacy of handwashing and sanitization in removing finger nicotine residue/ Human biological samples assessment |
Identification and determination of the volatile organics of third-hand smoke from different cigarettes and clothing fabrics | Elahe Tondro Borujeni, Kamyar Yaghmaian, Kazem Naddafi, Mohammad Sadegh Hassanvand, Maziar Naderi [50] | 2021 | Iran | N/A | Clothing fabrics such as cotton, wool, polyester, and filament fabrics. | Benzene, toluene, xylene, pyridine, limonene, naphthalene, furfural, and nicotine | 4 | Solid phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS)/ Environmental assessments |
Levels of 4-(methylnitrosamino)- 1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) in raw wastewater as an innovative perspective for investigating population-wide exposure to third-hand smoke | Foon Yin Lai, Katerina Lympousi, Frederic Been, Lisa Benaglia, Robin Udrisard, Olivier Delémont, Pierre Esseiva, Nikolaos S. Thomaidis, Adrian Covaci and Alexander L. N. van Nuijs [60] | 2018 | Belgium | Individuals living in four European cities: Athens (Greece), Geneva (Switzerland), Geraardsbergen, and Ninove (both in Belgium) | Sewage | Cotinine and trans-3′-hydroxycotinine (3CH) | N/A | Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry/ Environmental assessments |
Medical staff contributions to thirdhand smoke contamination in a neonatal intensive care unit | Thomas F. Northrup, Angela L. Stotts, Robert Suchting, Amir M. Khan, Charles Green, Penelope J. E. Quintana, Eunha Hoh, Melbourne F. Hovell, Georg E. Matt [36] | 2019 | USA | Medical staff working in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) | Fingers, survey | Nicotine | 246 | LC–MS/MS, collecting finger wipes, survey/ Human biological samples assessment |
Metabolites of a Tobacco-Specific Lung Carcinogen in Children exposed to second-hand or thirdhand tobacco smoke in their homes | Janet L. Thomas, Hongfei Guo, Steven G. Carmella, Silvia Balbo, Shaomei Han, Andrew Davis, Andrea Yoder, Sharon E. Murphy, Larry C. An, Jasjit S. Ahluwalia, and Stephen S. Hecht [37] | 2011 | USA | Low-income families with children aged 10 or younger | Urine, questionnaire | Cotinine and nicotine | 258 | Liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–ESI–MS/MS)/ Human biological samples assessment |
Nicotine on children’s hands: limited protection of smoking bans and initial clinical findings | E Melinda Mahabee-Gittens, Ashley L Merianos, Eunha Hoh, Penelope JE Quintana and Georg E Matt [38] | 2019 | USA | Children who live in homes with smokers and are exposed to second-hand smoke | Hand wipes | Nicotine | 104 | Hand wipes and LC–MS/MS, questionnaire/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Persistent tobacco smoke residue in multiunit housing: legacy of permissive indoor smoking policies and challenges in the implementation of smoking bans | Georg E. Matt, Penelope J.E. Quintanab, Eunha Hohb, Joy M. Zakarianc, Nathan G. Dodderc, Rachael A. Recordd, Melbourne F. Hovellb, E. Melinda Mahabee-Gittense, Samuel Padillac, Laura Markmanb, Kayo Watanabeb, Thomas E. Novotn [39] | 2020 | USA | Low-income multiunit housing residents | Surface wipes, survey | Nicotine | 220 | LC–MS/MS, gas chromatography–ion trap–tandem mass spectrometry (GC–IT–MS/MS)/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Preliminary evidence that high levels of nicotine on children’s hands may contribute to overall tobacco smoke exposure | E Melinda Mahabee-Gittens, Ashley L Merianos, Georg E Matt [40] | 2017 | USA | Children | Saliva, hand wipes | Nicotine, cotinine | 25 | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/ Human biological samples assessment |
Remediating thirdhand smoke pollution in multiunit housing:temporary reductions and the challenges of persistent reservoirs | Georg E. Matt, Penelope J. E. Quintana, Eunha Hoh, Joy M. Zakarian, Nathan G. Dodder, Rachael A. Record, Melbourne F. Hovell, E. Melinda Mahabee-Gittens, Samuel Padilla, Laura Markman, Kayo Watanabe, Thomas E. Novotny [41] | 2020 | USA | Individuals living in low-income housing with elevated levels of thirdhand smoke | Dust samples collected from various surfaces in the participants’ homes | Nicotine | 48 | Liquid chromatography with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)/ Environmental assessments |
Residual tobacco smoke in used cars: futile efforts and persistent pollutants | Addie L. Fortmann, Romina A. Romero, Marisa Sklar, Viet Pham, Joy Zakarian, Penelope J. E. Quintana, Dale Chatfield, Georg E. Matt [18] | 2010 | USA | Primary drivers of used cars—both smokers and non-smokers | Surface wipe, air, and dust samples collected from the interiors of cars, survey | Nicotine | 127 | Questionnaire/ Epidemiological assessment |
Sources of tobacco smoke exposure and their associations with serum cotinine levels among us children and adolescents | Ashley L. Merianos, Timothy M. Stone, Roman A. Jandarov, E. Melinda Mahabee-Gittens, Kelvin Choi [42] | 2022 | USA | US school-aged children ages 6–11 years and adolescents ages 12–17 years | Serum, survey | Cotinine | 5296 | Isotope-dilution high-performance liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometric (ID HPLC–APCI–MS/MS), questionnaire/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Thirdhand exposure at homes: Assessment using salivary cotinine | Cristina Lid’ on-Moyanoa, Marcela Fu, Raúl P’ erez-Ortuno, Montse Ballb, Esteve Garcia, Juan Carlos Martín-S’ anchez a, Jos A. Pascual, Esteve Fern’ andez, Jose M. Martínez-S’ anchez [43] | 2020 | Spain | Adults (≥16 years) | Saliva, questionnaire | Cotinine | 519 | Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Thirdhand cigarette smoke in an experimental chamber: evidence of surface deposition of nicotine, nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and de novo formation of NNK | Suzaynn F Schick, Kathryn F Farraro, Charles Perrino, Mohamad Sleiman, Glenn van de Vossenberg, Michael P Trinh, S Katharine Hammond, Bryan M Jenkins, John Balmes [52] | 2013 | USA | Individuals who are exposed to indoor environments where thirdhand smoke (THS) | Cotton cloth, paper | Nicotine, cotinine, tobacco-specific nitrosamines, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | N/A | Gc–MS/MS Environmental assessments |
Thirdhand smoke and exposure in California hotels: non-smoking rooms fail to protect non-smoking hotel guests from tobacco smoke exposure | Georg E Matt, Penelope J E Quintana, Addie L Fortmann, Joy M Zakarian, Vanessa E Galaviz, Dale A Chatfield, Eunha Hoh, Melbourne F Hovell, Carl Winston [56] | 2012 | USA | Non-smokers who are exposed to tobacco smoke pollutants in hotel environment | Urine and finger wipe, survey | Cotinine | N/A | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) with electrospray ionization (ESI). Isotope-dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS) techniques were utilized to quantify the concentrations of metabolites present in the samples/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Thirdhand smoke causes DNA damage in human cells | Bo Hang, Altaf H. Sarker, Christopher Havel, Saikat Saha, Tapas K. Hazra, Suzaynn Schick, Peyton Jacob III, Virender K. Rehan, Ahmed Chenna, Divya Sharan, Mohamad Sleiman, Hugo Destaillats and Lara A. Gundel [54] | 2013 | USA | Individuals who are exposed to indoor environments where thirdhand smoke (THS) | Cellulose substrates | Nicotine and tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) | N/A | LC–MS/MS, gas chromatography–ion trap–tandem mass spectrometry (GC–IT–MS/MS)/ Cellular analysis |
Thirdhand smoke contamination and infant nicotine exposure in a neonatal intensive care unit: an observational study | Thomas F. Northrup, Angela L. Stotts, Robert Suchting, Amir M. Khan, Charles Green, Michelle R. Klawans, Penelope J. E. Quintana, Eunha Hoh, Melbourne F. Hovell, Georg E. Matt [45] | 2020 | USA | Metropolitan neonatal intensive care unit (nicu), including both visitors to the nicu and mother–infant dyads being cared for in the unit | Finger-nicotine wipes, furniture-nicotine wipes from mother–infant dyads, infant urine samples, interview | Cotinine | 311 | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), interview/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Thirdhand smoke contamination in hospital settings: assessing exposure risk for vulnerable paediatric patients | Thomas F Northrup, Amir M Khan, Peyton Jacob III, Neal L Benowitz, Eunha Hoh, Melbourne F Hovell, Georg E Matt, Angela L Stotts [45] | 2016 | USA | Mothers who smoke and have infants in the neonatal ICU (NICU) | Urine, surface nicotine samples from various sources such as the participants’ fingers, the infants’ crib/incubator, and hospital-provided furniture, questionnaire | Nicotine, cotinine, trans-3′-hydroxycotinine (3HC), and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) | 5 | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Thirdhand smoke exposure- Differences in smoke exposure indices and cultural norms between hotels and motels in South Korea | Myung-Bae Park, Tae Sic Lee, Jee Eun Oh, Do Hoon Lee [46] | 2021 | Korea | Hotel and motel guests | Urine | Cotinine | 28 | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry/ Human biological samples assessment |
Thirdhand tobacco smoke: a tobacco-specific lung carcinogen on surfaces in smokers’ homes | Janet L. Thomas, Stephen S. Hecht, Xianghua Luo, Xun Ming, Jasjit S. Ahluwalia, Steven G. Carmella [57] | 2013 | USA | Areas where people smoke indoors, such as homes or indoor public spaces, where thirdhand tobacco smoke residues might accumulate | Surfaces or dust in indoor environments, questionnaire | NNAL is a biomarker for NNK exposure and was detected in the urine of individuals exposed to NNK | 56 | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Towards smoke-free cars in the Republic of Korea: Evidence from environmental and biochemical monitoring of third- hand smoke exposure in taxis | Eun Young Park, Min Kyung Lim, Sun Yeol Hong, Jee Eun Oh, Bo Yoon Jeong, E Hwa Yun, Wonho Yang, Do-Hoon Lee [58] | 2018 | Korea | Taxi drivers and their passengers | Air and dust, questionnaire | NNK and nicotine | 17 | Passive samplers were used to collect air samples, gas chromatography and liquid chromatography/ Environmental assessments |
When smokers move out and non-smokers move in residential thirdhand smoke pollution and exposure | Georg E Matt, Penelope J E Quintana, Joy M Zakarian, Addie L Fortmann, Dale A Chatfield, Eunha Hoh, Anna M Uribe, Melbourne F Hovell [25] | 2010 | USA | Smokers and non-smokers | Urine, finger wipes, questionnaire | Cotinine, nicotine | N/A | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), surface wipes, surveys/ Human biological samples assessment, epidemiological assessment |
Wipe sampling for nicotine as a marker of thirdhand tobacco smoke contamination on surfaces in homes, cars, and hotels | Penelope J. E. Quintana, Georg E. Matt, Dale Chatfield, Joy M. Zakarian, Addie L. Fortmann, Eunha Hoh [59] | 2013 | USA | N/A | Surface wipe | Nicotine | 150 | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) (isotope-dilution mass spectrometric (IDMS) techniques used nicotine-d4 to quantify the nicotine concentrations)/ Environmental assessments |
3.2. Evaluation of Exposed Matrices or Samples
3.3. Human Biological Samples
3.4. Environmental Assessment
3.5. Epidemiological Assessment
3.6. Cellular Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
SHS | Second-hand smoke |
THS | Thirdhand smoke |
3HC | 3-hydroxycotinine |
PROSPERO | Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews |
PRISMA | Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses |
LC–MS/MS | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry |
GC–MS | Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry |
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Almassi, A.A.; Oliver, B.G.G.; Smith, S.M. Analysis of Assessment Methods for Detecting Nicotine Residue and Its Impact on Humans: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 621. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040621
Almassi AA, Oliver BGG, Smith SM. Analysis of Assessment Methods for Detecting Nicotine Residue and Its Impact on Humans: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025; 22(4):621. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040621
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlmassi, Audrey A., Brian G. G. Oliver, and Sheree M. Smith. 2025. "Analysis of Assessment Methods for Detecting Nicotine Residue and Its Impact on Humans: A Systematic Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 22, no. 4: 621. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040621
APA StyleAlmassi, A. A., Oliver, B. G. G., & Smith, S. M. (2025). Analysis of Assessment Methods for Detecting Nicotine Residue and Its Impact on Humans: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(4), 621. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040621