Differences Between Health- and Skill-Related Physical Fitness Profiles of Kenyan Children from Urban and Rural Areas: The Kenya-LINX Project
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample and Study Design
2.2. School and Participant Recruitment
2.3. Testing Procedures and Instruments
2.3.1. Components of Health-Related Fitness
2.3.2. Components of Skill-Related Fitness
2.3.3. Data Collection and Quality Control
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Strengths and Limitations and Future Research
4.2. Practical Implications
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
PF | physical fitness |
CRF | cardiorespiratory fitness |
PA | physical activity |
BMI | body mass index |
Kenya-LINX | Kenya healthy diet and active lifestyle infrastructure for the next generation |
KU-ERC | Kenyatta University Ethical Review Committee |
NACOSTI | National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation |
PE | physical education |
20 m MSFT | 20-metre multistage fitness test |
cm | centimetres |
kg | kilograms |
IOTF | international obesity task force |
SAR | sit-and-reach test |
5 × 10 m SRT | 5 × 10-metre shuttle run test |
SBJ | standing broad jump test |
s | second |
m | metres |
SD | standard deviation |
χ2 | Chi-square test |
VIF | variance inflation factor |
SPSS | Statistical Package for the Social Sciences |
CI | confidence interval |
LB | lower bound |
UB | upper body |
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Variable | All (n = 1131) | Rural (n = 481) | Urban (n = 650) | p-Value | Cohen’s d | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) or n (%) | Mean (SD) or n (%) | Mean (SD) or n (%) | ||||||
Sex | ||||||||
Boys | 536 (47.4%) | 232 (48.2%) | 304 (46.8%) | 0.55 | ||||
Girls | 595 (52.6%) | 249 (51.8%) | 346 (53.2%) | |||||
Age (years) | 11.07 | (0.89) | 11.19 | (0.95) | 10.97 | (0.83) | <0.001 * | 0.25 |
Stature (cm) | 138.80 | 8.92 | 135.45 | 7.46 | 141.27 | 9.10 | <0.001 * | −0.70 |
Body mass (kg) | 33.37 | 8.53 | 29.04 | 6.17 | 36.57 | 8.63 | <0.001 * | −0.99 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 17.15 | 3.31 | 15.72 | 2.36 | 18.21 | 3.51 | <0.001 * | −0.83 |
Weight status | ||||||||
Healthy weight | 680 (60.1%) | 245 (50.9%) | 434 (66.9%) | <0.001 * | ||||
Below healthy weight | 303 (26.8%) | 214 (44.5%) | 89 (13.7%) | |||||
Overweight | 127 (11.2%) | 19 (4%) | 106 (16.6%) | |||||
Obese | 21 (1.9%) | 3 (0.6%) | 20 (2.8%) | |||||
Type of school | ||||||||
Private school | 549 (48.5%) | 197 (41%) | 352 (54.2%) | <0.001 * | ||||
Public school | 582 (51.5%) | 284 (59%) | 298 (45.8%) |
Variable | Rural | Urban | chi-Squared | df | p-Value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | Adjusted Residual | n | % | Adjusted Residual | ||||
CRF Threshold (laps) | 109 | 22.7% | 6.7 | 55 | 8.4% | −6.7 | 45.102 a | 1 | <0.001 * |
Explosive Leg Power Threshold (cm) | 382 | 79.4% | - | 490 | 75.3% | - | 2.691 a | 1 | 0.101 |
Dominant Arm Strength Threshold (kg) | 320 | 66.5% | −8.2 | 565 | 86.8% | 8.2 | 66.569 a | 1 | <0.001 * |
Outcome Variable | Predictors | Multivariable Analysis | Univariate Analysis | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate (β) | Sig. | 95.0% CI | Estimate (β) | Sig. | |||
LB | UB | ||||||
Speed, endurance, and coordination (number of bounces) | (Constant) | 14.26 | <0.001 * | 8.72 | 19.80 | ||
Area (Urban) | 3.68 | <0.001 * | 2.74 | 4.62 | 4.12 | <0.001 * | |
Sex (Female) | 0.75 | 0.092 | −0.12 | 1.62 | 0.98 | 0.045 * | |
Age (years) | 1.60 | <0.001 * | 1.10 | 2.09 | 1.85 | <0.001 * | |
Healthy Weight (reference) | |||||||
Below Healthy Weight | −0.29 | 0.591 | −1.34 | 0.76 | −0.45 | 0.512 | |
Overweight | −5.83 | <0.001 * | −7.24 | −4.41 | −6.12 | <0.001 * | |
Obese | −5.24 | 0.001* | −8.37 | −2.10 | −5.89 | 0.002 * | |
Lower back flexibility (cm) | (Constant) | 20.81 | <0.001 * | 19.95 | 21.68 | ||
Sex (Female) | 0.82 | 0.179 | −0.38 | 2.02 | 1.12 | 0.145 | |
Area (Urban) | −2.77 | <0.001 * | −3.91 | −1.63 | −3.13 | <0.001 * | |
Age (years) | 4.19 | 0.063 | −0.02 | 0.86 | 0.98 | 0.062 | |
Healthy Weight (reference) | |||||||
Below Healthy Weight | 0.32 | 0.511 | −0.63 | 1.27 | 0.45 | 0.512 | |
Overweight | −1.18 | 0.073 | −2.47 | 0.11 | −3.12 | 0.073 | |
Obese | −0.46 | 0.745 | −3.22 | −2.30 | −2.89 | 0.198 | |
Sex (female) × Area [urban-(reference)] | |||||||
Sex (female) × Area (urban) | 1.83 | 0.023 * | 0.249 | 3.404 | - | - | |
Hand grip strength (kg) | (Constant) | 1.94 | 0.227 | −1.21 | 5.10 | ||
Sex (Female) | −0.95 | <0.001 * | −1.44 | −0.45 | −1.12 | <0.001 * | |
Area (Urban) | 2.16 | <0.001 * | 1.62 | 2.69 | 2.45 | <0.001 * | |
Age (years) | 1.39 | <0.001 * | 1.11 | 1.67 | 1.65 | <0.001 * | |
Healthy Weight (reference) | |||||||
Below Healthy Weight | −1.98 | <0.001 * | −2.59 | −1.38 | −2.12 | <0.001 * | |
Overweight | 1.44 | <0.001 * | .639 | 2.25 | 1.78 | <0.001 * | |
Obese | 1.68 | 0.059 | −0.06 | 3.41 | 2.01 | 0.045 * | |
Cardiorespiratory fitness (number of laps) | (Constant) | 22.67 | <0.001 * | 21.30 | 24.05 | ||
Sex (Female) | −6.92 | <0.001 * | −8.63 | −5.21 | −7.45 | <0.001 * | |
Area (Urban) | −4.67 | <0.001 * | −6.37 | −2.97 | −5.12 | <0.001 * | |
Age (years) | 0.10 | 0.760 | −0.53 | 0.73 | 1.85 | <0.001 * | |
Healthy Weight (reference) | |||||||
Below Healthy Weight | 3.09 | <0.001 * | 1.75 | 4.44 | 3.45 | <0.001 * | |
Overweight | −5.03 | <0.001 * | −6.84 | −3.22 | −5.45 | <0.001 * | |
Obese | −2.53 | 0.206 | −6.45 | 1.39 | −3.12 | <0.001 * | |
Sex(female) × Area [rural-(reference)] | |||||||
Sex(female) × Area(urban) | 3.00 | 0.009 * | 0.76 | 5.25 | - | - | |
Running speed and agility (s) | (Constant) | 17.23 | <0.001 * | 16.97 | 17.49 | ||
Sex (Female) | 0.49 | <0.001 * | 0.25 | 0.74 | 0.65 | <0.001 * | |
Area (Urban) | −1.03 | <0.001 * | −1.30 | −0.77 | −1.25 | <0.001 * | |
Age (years) | −0.04 | 0.613 | −0.18 | −0.10 | 0.98 | 0.062 | |
Healthy Weight (reference) | |||||||
Below Healthy Weight | 0.14 | 0.342 | −0.15 | 0.44 | 0.25 | 0.312 | |
Overweight | 0.72 | <0.001 * | 0.32 | 1.12 | 0.85 | <0.001 * | |
Obese | 0.92 | 0.036 * | 0.06 | 1.79 | 1.12 | 0.045 * | |
Explosive leg power (cm) | (Constant) | 101.81 | <0.001 * | 88.81 | 114.82 | ||
Sex (Female) | −6.75 | <0.001 * | −8.77 | −4.73 | −7.12 | <0.001 * | |
Area (Urban) | 2.25 | 0.046 * | 0.04 | 4.46 | 2.78 | 0.035 * | |
Age (years) | 2.23 | <0.001 * | 1.08 | 3.38 | 2.45 | <0.001 * | |
Healthy Weight (reference) | |||||||
Below Healthy Weight | −0.82 | 0.512 | −3.29 | 1.64 | −1.12 | 0.512 | |
Overweight | −12.22 | <0.001 * | −15.54 | −8.91 | −13.12 | <0.001 * | |
Obese | −12.65 | 0.001 * | −19.84 | −5.46 | −13.45 | 0.002 * |
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Kinuthia, S.K.; Stratton, G.; Wachira, L.J.; Okoth, V.; Owino, G.E.; Ochola, S.; Richards, A.B.; Kiplamai, F.; Onywera, V.; Swindell, N. Differences Between Health- and Skill-Related Physical Fitness Profiles of Kenyan Children from Urban and Rural Areas: The Kenya-LINX Project. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 542. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040542
Kinuthia SK, Stratton G, Wachira LJ, Okoth V, Owino GE, Ochola S, Richards AB, Kiplamai F, Onywera V, Swindell N. Differences Between Health- and Skill-Related Physical Fitness Profiles of Kenyan Children from Urban and Rural Areas: The Kenya-LINX Project. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025; 22(4):542. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040542
Chicago/Turabian StyleKinuthia, Stanley Kagunda, Gareth Stratton, Lucy Joy Wachira, Victor Okoth, George Evans Owino, Sophie Ochola, Amie Bethan Richards, Festus Kiplamai, Vincent Onywera, and Nils Swindell. 2025. "Differences Between Health- and Skill-Related Physical Fitness Profiles of Kenyan Children from Urban and Rural Areas: The Kenya-LINX Project" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 22, no. 4: 542. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040542
APA StyleKinuthia, S. K., Stratton, G., Wachira, L. J., Okoth, V., Owino, G. E., Ochola, S., Richards, A. B., Kiplamai, F., Onywera, V., & Swindell, N. (2025). Differences Between Health- and Skill-Related Physical Fitness Profiles of Kenyan Children from Urban and Rural Areas: The Kenya-LINX Project. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(4), 542. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040542