Previous Article in Journal
Perspectives on Rising Societal Crime on Workplace Productivity in a Small Island Developing State
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJERPH
Volume 22
Issue 12
10.3390/ijerph22121859
ijerph-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Study Protocol

Design of a Prospective Human–Animal Cohort Study to Evaluate the Role of Camels and Other Livestock Species in the Transmission of Brucella spp. to Humans in Kenya

by
Dismas Oketch
1,2,*,
Ruth Njoroge
2,
Isaac Ngere
2,3,
John Gachohi
2,3,4,
Samuel Waiguru
2,5,
Dalmas Omia
6,
Peninah Munyua
7,
Samoel Khamadi
8,
Bonventure Juma
7,
Athman Mwatondo
9,
Samson Limbaso
8,
Mathew Muturi
9,10,
Roland Ashford
11,
Adrian Whatmore
11,
John McGiven
12,
Scott Nuismer
5,
Felix Lankester
3,13,
John Njeru
14,
Ali Boru
15,
Boku Bodha
16,
Lydia Kilowua
17,
Nazaria Nyaga
18,
Humphrey Njaanake
1,
Walter Jaoko
1,19,
Kariuki Njenga
2,3 and
Eric Osoro
2,3add Show full author list remove Hide full author list
1
Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
2
Washington State University Global Health Program, Washington State University, P.O. Box 72938, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
3
Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99163, USA
4
School of Public Health, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
5
Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
6
Department of Anthropology, Gender and African Studies, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
7
Division of Global Health Protection, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi 00621, Kenya
8
Centre for Virus Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
9
Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Health, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
10
Department of Veterinary Medicine, Dahlem Research School of Biomedical Sciences (DRS), Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
11
Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge KT15 3NB, UK
12
Department for International Development, Innovation and Business, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge KT15 3NB, UK
13
Global Health Tanzania, Arusha P.O. Box 1640, Tanzania
14
Centre for Microbiology Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
15
Department of Health Services, County Government of Marsabit, Marsabit 60500, Kenya
16
Department of Veterinary Services, County Government of Marsabit, Marsabit 60500, Kenya
17
Department of Health, County Government of Kajiado, Kajiado 01100, Kenya
18
Department of Veterinary Services, County Government of Kajiado, Kajiado 01100, Kenya
19
KAVI Institute of Clinical Research, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
 
add Show full affiliation list
 
remove Hide full affiliation list
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22(12), 1859; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22121859
Submission received: 15 May 2025 / Revised: 23 November 2025 / Accepted: 27 November 2025 / Published: 12 December 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

Brucellosis remains a major zoonotic disease worldwide, with disproportionate burden in low- and middle-income countries where limited veterinary and healthcare infrastructure constrain effective control measures. However, its pathways of transmission are poorly understood. In pastoralist settings, we hypothesize that camels have a high burden of Brucella spp. and play a key role in spreading it to humans and other livestock. This manuscript presents a study protocol to quantify the relative contribution of various livestock species to brucellosis transmission and identify cost-effective control strategies in Kenya. Using probability-proportional-to-size sampling, we aimed to recruit a longitudinal cohort of 170 households and their herds per site in the Marsabit and Kajiado counties. Households rearing at least one livestock species (cattle, camels, goats, sheep) were eligible. Serum, milk, and vaginal swabs (from livestock), and serum (from humans) were collected for testing using Rose Bengal Test, ELISA, qPCR, and culture methods. Concurrently, surveillance for suspected brucellosis was conducted in study health facilities. A qualitative ethnographic study and livestock movement monitoring using GPS-collared animals were nested within the cohort. These data will be used to parameterize a multi-host, multi-species infectious disease model through Approximate Bayesian Computation. Through this One Health approach, our study will identify and optimize potential interventions and help inform the development of a comprehensive cost-effective national control program for brucellosis.
Keywords: Brucella; brucellosis; zoonosis; epidemiology; study protocol; transmission; livestock; one health Brucella; brucellosis; zoonosis; epidemiology; study protocol; transmission; livestock; one health

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Oketch, D.; Njoroge, R.; Ngere, I.; Gachohi, J.; Waiguru, S.; Omia, D.; Munyua, P.; Khamadi, S.; Juma, B.; Mwatondo, A.; et al. Design of a Prospective Human–Animal Cohort Study to Evaluate the Role of Camels and Other Livestock Species in the Transmission of Brucella spp. to Humans in Kenya. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 1859. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22121859

AMA Style

Oketch D, Njoroge R, Ngere I, Gachohi J, Waiguru S, Omia D, Munyua P, Khamadi S, Juma B, Mwatondo A, et al. Design of a Prospective Human–Animal Cohort Study to Evaluate the Role of Camels and Other Livestock Species in the Transmission of Brucella spp. to Humans in Kenya. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2025; 22(12):1859. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22121859

Chicago/Turabian Style

Oketch, Dismas, Ruth Njoroge, Isaac Ngere, John Gachohi, Samuel Waiguru, Dalmas Omia, Peninah Munyua, Samoel Khamadi, Bonventure Juma, Athman Mwatondo, and et al. 2025. "Design of a Prospective Human–Animal Cohort Study to Evaluate the Role of Camels and Other Livestock Species in the Transmission of Brucella spp. to Humans in Kenya" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 22, no. 12: 1859. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22121859

APA Style

Oketch, D., Njoroge, R., Ngere, I., Gachohi, J., Waiguru, S., Omia, D., Munyua, P., Khamadi, S., Juma, B., Mwatondo, A., Limbaso, S., Muturi, M., Ashford, R., Whatmore, A., McGiven, J., Nuismer, S., Lankester, F., Njeru, J., Boru, A., ... Osoro, E. (2025). Design of a Prospective Human–Animal Cohort Study to Evaluate the Role of Camels and Other Livestock Species in the Transmission of Brucella spp. to Humans in Kenya. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(12), 1859. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22121859

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop