The “Why” in Mental Health, Stigma, and Addictive Behaviors: Causal Inferences in Applied Settings
1. Introduction
2. Methodological Considerations in Scientific Research
3. Balancing External and Internal Validity in Research Design: The Role of Sampling and Assignment in Causal Inference
4. Mental Health, Stigma, and Addictive Behaviors
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Fanelli, D. Do Pressures to Publish Increase Scientists’ Bias? An Empirical Support from US States Data. PLoS ONE 2010, 5, e10271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Banks, G.C.; Rogelberg, S.G.; Woznyj, H.M.; Landis, R.S.; Rupp, D.E. Editorial: Evidence on Questionable Research Practices: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. J. Bus. Psychol. 2016, 31, 323–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hofmann, B.; Myhr, A.I.; Holm, S. Scientific Dishonesty—A Nationwide Survey of Doctoral Students in Norway. BMC Med. Ethics 2013, 14, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ioannidis, J.P.A. Why Most Published Research Findings Are False. PLoS Med. 2005, 2, e124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shadish, W.R.; Cook, T.D.; Campbell, D.T. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference; Houghton Mifflin: Boston, MA, USA, 2001; ISBN 978-0-395-61556-0. [Google Scholar]
- Grosz, M.P.; Rohrer, J.M.; Thoemmes, F. The Taboo Against Explicit Causal Inference in Nonexperimental Psychology. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2020, 15, 1243–1255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sánchez-Iglesias, I.; Martín-Aguilar, C. Significant Differences and Experimental Designs Do Not Necessarily Imply Clinical Relevance: Effect Sizes and Causality Claims in Antidepressant Treatments. J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12, 3181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thapa, D.K.; Visentin, D.C.; Hunt, G.E.; Watson, R.; Cleary, M. Being Honest with Causal Language in Writing for Publication. J. Adv. Nurs. 2020, 76, 1285–1288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lipton, R.; Ødegaard, T. Causal Thinking and Causal Language in Epidemiology: It’s in the Details. Epidemiol. Perspect. Innov. 2005, 2, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cofield, S.S.; Corona, R.V.; Allison, D.B. Use of Causal Language in Observational Studies of Obesity and Nutrition. Obes. Facts 2010, 3, 353–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sánchez-Iglesias, I.; González-Castaño, M.; Molina, A.J. Use of Causal Language in Studies on the Relationship between Spiritually-Based Treatments and Substance Abuse and Relapse Prevention. Religions 2021, 12, 1075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sánchez-Iglesias, I.; Graña, D.F. Use and Abuse of Causal Language in Non-Experimental Studies on Cannabis Use and the Development of Psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 2023, 258, 53–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haber, N.; Smith, E.R.; Moscoe, E.; Andrews, K.; Audy, R.; Bell, W.; Brennan, A.T.; Breskin, A.; Kane, J.C.; Karra, M.; et al. Causal Language and Strength of Inference in Academic and Media Articles Shared in Social Media (CLAIMS): A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0196346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hall, M.G.; Grummon, A.H.; Maynard, O.M.; Kameny, M.R.; Jenson, D.; Popkin, B.M. Causal Language in Health Warning Labels and US Adults’ Perception: A Randomized Experiment. Am. J. Public Health 2019, 109, 1429–1433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization (WHO). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD); World Health Organization (WHO): Geneva, Switzerland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Moreno-Agostino, D.; Wu, Y.-T.; Daskalopoulou, C.; Hasan, M.T.; Huisman, M.; Prina, M. Global Trends in the Prevalence and Incidence of Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 2021, 281, 235–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kessler, R.C.; Petukhova, M.; Sampson, N.A.; Zaslavsky, A.M.; Wittchen, H.-U. Twelve-Month and Lifetime Prevalence and Lifetime Morbid Risk of Anxiety and Mood Disorders in the United States: Anxiety and Mood Disorders in the United States. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 2012, 21, 169–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.; American Psychiatric Association: Arlington, VA, USA, 2013; ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. [Google Scholar]
- Maslach, C.; Jackson, S.E. The Measurement of Experienced Burnout. J. Organ. Behav. 1981, 2, 99–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aguayo-Estremera, R.; Cañadas, G.R.; Ortega-Campos, E.; Ariza, T.; De La Fuente-Solana, E.I. Validity Evidence for the Internal Structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey: A Comparison between Classical CFA Model and the ESEM and the Bifactor Models. Mathematics 2023, 11, 1515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salvarani, V.; Rampoldi, G.; Ardenghi, S.; Bani, M.; Blasi, P.; Ausili, D.; Di Mauro, S.; Strepparava, M.G. Protecting Emergency Room Nurses from Burnout: The Role of Dispositional Mindfulness, Emotion Regulation and Empathy. J. Nurs. Manag. 2019, 27, 765–774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albendín-García, L.; Suleiman-Martos, N.; Ortega-Campos, E.; Aguayo-Estremera, R.; Romero-Béjar, J.; Cañadas-De La Fuente, G. Explanatory Models of Burnout Diagnosis Based on Personality Factors in Primary Care Nurses. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 9170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suleiman-Martos, N.; Gomez-Urquiza, J.L.; Aguayo-Estremera, R.; Cañadas-De La Fuente, G.A.; De La Fuente-Solana, E.I.; Albendín-García, L. The Effect of Mindfulness Training on Burnout Syndrome in Nursing: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J. Adv. Nurs. 2020, 76, 1124–1140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Degenhardt, L.; Hall, W. Cannabis and Psychosis. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 2002, 4, 191–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hasan, A.; von Keller, R.; Friemel, C.M.; Hall, W.; Schneider, M.; Koethe, D.; Leweke, F.M.; Strube, W.; Hoch, E. Cannabis Use and Psychosis: A Review of Reviews. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2020, 270, 403–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- van der Steur, S.J.; Batalla, A.; Bossong, M.G. Factors Moderating the Association between Cannabis Use and Psychosis Risk: A Systematic Review. Brain Sci. 2020, 10, 97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ottati, V.; Bodenhausen, G.V.; Newman, L.S. Social Psychological Models of Mental Illness Stigma. In On the Stigma of Mental Illness: Practical Strategies for Research and Social Change; Corrigan, P.W., Ed.; American Psychological Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2005; pp. 99–128. ISBN 978-1-59147-189-9. [Google Scholar]
- Corrigan, P.W.; Powell, K.J.; Michaels, P.J. Brief Battery for Measurement of Stigmatizing versus Affirming Attitudes about Mental Illness. Psychiatry Res. 2014, 215, 466–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Robles Morales, J.M.; Antino, M.; De Marco, S.; Lobera, J.A. La Nueva Frontera de La Desigualdad Digital: La Brecha Participativa/The New Frontier of Digital Inequality. The Participatory Divide. Rev. Española De Investig. Sociológicas 2016, 156, 97–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angermeyer, M.C.; Schomerus, G. State of the Art of Population-Based Attitude Research on Mental Health: A Systematic Review. Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci. 2017, 26, 252–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Angermeyer, M.C.; Dietrich, S. Public Beliefs about and Attitudes towards People with Mental Illness: A Review of Population Studies. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2006, 113, 163–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kudva, K.G.; El Hayek, S.; Gupta, A.K.; Kurokawa, S.; Bangshan, L.; Armas-Villavicencio, M.V.C.; Oishi, K.; Mishra, S.; Tiensuntisook, S.; Sartorius, N. Stigma in Mental Illness: Perspective from Eight Asian Nations. Asia-Pac. Psychiatry 2020, 12, e12380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nine, S.B.; Najm, A.F.; Allan, E.B.; Gronholm, P.C. Mental Health Stigma among Community Members in Afghanistan: A Cross-Sectional Survey. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 2022, 68, 1470–1485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gurung, D.; Poudyal, A.; Wang, Y.L.; Neupane, M.; Bhattarai, K.; Wahid, S.S.; Aryal, S.; Heim, E.; Gronholm, P.; Thornicroft, G.; et al. Stigma against Mental Health Disorders in Nepal Conceptualised with a ‘What Matters Most’ Framework: A Scoping Review. Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci. 2022, 31, e11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Werner, S.; Scior, K. Intellectual Disability Stigma: The State of the Evidence. In The Cambridge Handbook of Stigma and Mental Health; Vogel, D.L., Wade, N.G., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2022; pp. 158–184. ISBN 978-1-108-92099-5. [Google Scholar]
- Nagata, K.K. The Measurement of the Hong Kong-Based ‘Baseline Survey of Students’ Attitudes toward People with a Disability’: Cross-Cultural Validation in Lebanon. Int. J. Rehabil. Res. 2007, 30, 239–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, H.K.; Ouellette-Kuntz, H.; Lysaght, R.; Burge, P. Students’ Behavioural Intentions Towards Peers with Disability. J. Appl. Res. Intellect. Disabil. 2011, 24, 322–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saran, A.; Hunt, X.; White, H.; Kuper, H. Effectiveness of Interventions for Improving Social Inclusion Outcomes for People with Disabilities in Low- and Middle-income Countries: A Systematic Review. Campbell Syst. Rev. 2023, 19, e1316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Smythe, T.; Adelson, J.D.; Polack, S. Systematic Review of Interventions for Reducing Stigma Experienced by Children with Disabilities and Their Families in Low- and Middle-income Countries: State of the Evidence. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2020, 25, 508–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Scior, K.; Hamid, A.; Hastings, R.; Werner, S.; Belton, C.; Laniyan, A.; Patel, M.; Kett, M. Intellectual Disability Stigma and Initiatives to Challenge It and Promote Inclusion around the Globe. J. Policy Pract. Intellect. Disabil. 2020, 17, 165–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vogel, D.L.; Wade, N.G. The Cambridge Handbook of Stigma and Mental Health; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2022; ISBN 978-1-108-92235-7. [Google Scholar]
- Hatzenbuehler, M.L.; Phelan, J.C.; Link, B.G. Stigma as a Fundamental Cause of Population Health Inequalities. Am. J. Public Health 2013, 103, 813–821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhui, K.; Shanahan, L.; Harding, G. Homelessness and Mental Illness: A Literature Review and a Qualitative Study of Perceptions of the Adequacy of Care. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 2006, 52, 152–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weng, S.S.; Clark, P.G. Working with Homeless Populations to Increase Access to Services: A Social Service Providers’ Perspective Through the Lens of Stereotyping and Stigma. J. Progress. Hum. Serv. 2018, 29, 81–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rayburn, R.L.; Corzine, J. Your Shelter or Mine? Romantic Relationships Among the Homeless. Deviant Behav. 2010, 31, 756–774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sánchez-Iglesias, I.; Bernaldo-de-Quirós, M.; Labrador, F.J.; Estupiñá Puig, F.J.; Labrador, M.; Fernández-Arias, I. Spanish Validation and Scoring of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale–Short-Form (IGDS9-SF). Span. J. Psychol. 2020, 23, e22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pontes, H.M.; Griffiths, M.D. Measuring DSM-5 Internet Gaming Disorder: Development and Validation of a Short Psychometric Scale. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2015, 45, 137–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sanders, J.; Williams, R. The Relationship Between Video Gaming, Gambling, and Problematic Levels of Video Gaming and Gambling. J. Gambl. Stud. 2019, 35, 559–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hanss, D.; Mentzoni, R.A.; Griffiths, M.D.; Pallesen, S. The Impact of Gambling Advertising: Problem Gamblers Report Stronger Impacts on Involvement, Knowledge, and Awareness than Recreational Gamblers. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 2015, 29, 483–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pitt, H.; Thomas, S.L.; Bestman, A.; Daube, M.; Derevensky, J. Factors That Influence Children’s Gambling Attitudes and Consumption Intentions: Lessons for Gambling Harm Prevention Research, Policies and Advocacy Strategies. Harm Reduct. J. 2017, 14, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- El Rawas, R.; Amaral, I.M.; Hofer, A. Social Interaction Reward: A Resilience Approach to Overcome Vulnerability to Drugs of Abuse. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2020, 37, 12–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Joyce, K.M.; Davidson, M.; Manly, E.; Stewart, S.H.; Al-Hamdani, M. A Systematic Review on the Impact of Alcohol Warning Labels. J. Addict. Dis. 2023, 1–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kokole, D.; Anderson, P.; Jané-Llopis, E. Nature and Potential Impact of Alcohol Health Warning Labels: A Scoping Review. Nutrients 2021, 13, 3065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shield, K.; Manthey, J.; Rylett, M.; Probst, C.; Wettlaufer, A.; Parry, C.D.H.; Rehm, J. National, Regional, and Global Burdens of Disease from 2000 to 2016 Attributable to Alcohol Use: A Comparative Risk Assessment Study. Lancet Public Health 2020, 5, e51–e61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sánchez-Iglesias, I. The “Why” in Mental Health, Stigma, and Addictive Behaviors: Causal Inferences in Applied Settings. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 6915. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20206915
Sánchez-Iglesias I. The “Why” in Mental Health, Stigma, and Addictive Behaviors: Causal Inferences in Applied Settings. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(20):6915. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20206915
Chicago/Turabian StyleSánchez-Iglesias, Iván. 2023. "The “Why” in Mental Health, Stigma, and Addictive Behaviors: Causal Inferences in Applied Settings" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 20: 6915. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20206915