Effects of Environmental Features in Small Public Urban Green Spaces on Older Adults’ Mental Restoration: Evidence from Tokyo
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Environmental Features in SPUGS
1.2. Mental Restoration of Older Adults
1.3. Research Framework
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Overall Research Procedure
2.2. Selection of Targeted Parks and SPUGS Typologies
2.3. Environmental Factors and Variable Measurements
2.3.1. Microclimate Measurement
2.3.2. Spatial Form, Nature, and Facility Feature Variables
2.4. Questionnaire Survey
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. The SPUGS’s Environment Features and Respondents’ Characteristics
3.2. Effects of Individual and Environmental Features on ROS
3.3. Effects of Individual and Environmental Features on Subjective Vitality Benefits
4. Discussion
Limitations and Implications
5. Conclusions
- Participants over 70 were more likely to gain revitalization benefits from the SPUGS. When the older adults remained in the SPUGS for more than 30 min, the ROS and self-reported vitality restoration scores increased significantly. Companionship was found to exert an influence on the psychological benefits gained during visits to the parks, which supports previous studies;
- The sky view factor strongly affected the older adults’ restorative effects. The boundary enclosure and green view index have a significant impact, which suggests that shrubs and trees should be combined to provide older adults with a greater sense of enclosure and security, as well as offer a more appropriate level of greenness. The green view index should be about 0.4. Spaces with a proper number of seats are more inclined to provide psychological recovery benefits;
- The vitalizing effects were significantly affected by the colorfulness index, green vision rate, water features, road paving, boundary enclosure, and aspect ratio. Older adults can benefit from vitality recovery when visiting SPUGS through the perception of aesthetic and space edge protection. In addition, water features should be avoided in SPUGS;
- PET was confirmed to have negative, direct effects on the restorative benefits of older adults within the range of 5–20 °C. The relationship was more prominent in older respondents with a PET of more than 16 °C.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
SPUGS | Small Public Urban Green Space |
UGS | Urban Green Space |
ART | Attention Restoration Theory |
SRT | Stress Reduction Theory |
PET | Physiological Equivalent Temperature |
ROS | Restoration Outcome Scale |
Appendix A
Appendix B
References
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Basic Information | Park A (Hakusanbori) | Park B (Nishigahara Minnano) | Park C (Kita City Central) |
---|---|---|---|
Classification | Neighborhood park | City Block Park | Park |
Area size (m2) | 2500 | 21,900 | 79,200 |
Neighborhood aging rate (%) | 36.27 | 25.10 | 21.00 |
Green cover rate (%) | 52.50 | 59.70 | 72.80 |
Lawn-grass cover rate (%) | 4.20 | 28.00 | 14.40 |
Microclimate Factors | Instruments | Height (m) | Range | Accuracy |
---|---|---|---|---|
Air temperature | Temperature sensor IC (RTR503) | 1.1 | 0–55 °C | ±0.3 °C |
Relative humidity | Humidity sensor IC (RTR503) | 1.1 | 10–95% | ±5% RH |
Wind velocity | Three-cup type wind speed meter (DT-187) | 1.1 | 0.5–30 m/s | ±0.2 m/s |
Global temperature | 40 mm ping-pong ball with a class 1 type T-type thermocouple | 1.1 | −40–125 °C | ±0.5 °C |
Variables | Full Sample (N = 202) | Sex | |
---|---|---|---|
Male (N = 127) | Female (N = 75) | ||
Age | |||
60–69 | 54 (26.73%) | 31 (24.41%) | 23 (30.67%) |
70–79 | 104 (51.49%) | 68 (53.54%) | 36 (48.00%) |
≥80 | 44 (21.78%) | 28 (22.05%) | 16 (21.33%) |
Health status | |||
Very healthy | 125 (61.88%) | 80 (62.99%) | 45 (60.00%) |
Healthy | 72 (35.64%) | 43 (33.86%) | 29 (38.67%) |
Poor | 5 (2.48%) | 4 (3.15%) | 1 (1.33%) |
Length of residency | |||
<1 year | 1 (0.50%) | 1 (0.79%) | 0 |
1–3 years | 11 (5.45%) | 8 (6.30%) | 3 (4.00%) |
>3 years | 169 (83.66%) | 103 (81.10%) | 66 (88.00%) |
Visit frequency | |||
1–2 times per week | 121 (59.90%) | 82 (64.57%) | 39 (52.00%) |
3–4 times per week | 81 (40.10%) | 45 (35.43%) | 36 (48.00%) |
Distance from home | |||
Less than 10 min | 114 (56.44%) | 69 (54.33%) | 45 (60.00%) |
10–20 min | 56 (27.72%) | 36 (28.35%) | 20 (26.67%) |
More than 20 min | 32 (15.84%) | 22 (17.32%) | 10 (13.33%) |
Time spent | |||
Less than 10 min | 14 (6.93%) | 8 (6.30%) | 6 (8.00%) |
10–30 min | 54 (26.73%) | 29 (22.83%) | 25 (33.33%) |
Over 30 min | 134 (66.34%) | 90 (70.87%) | 44 (58.67%) |
Reason for visit | |||
Exercise | 85 (42.08%) | 56 (44.09%) | 29 (38.67%) |
Socializing | 23 (11.39%) | 13 (10.24%) | 10 (13.33%) |
Relaxation | 55 (27.23%) | 37 (29.13%) | 18 (24.00%) |
Companionship | 30 (14.85%) | 14 (11.02%) | 16 (21.33%) |
Passing by/living near | 9 (4.46%) | 7 (5.51%) | 2 (2.67%) |
Clothing insulation (SD) | 1.05 (0.18) | 1.04 (0.18) | 1.06 (0.18) |
PET (°C) (SD) | 15.24 (4.32) | 14.97 (4.50) | 15.75 (3.94) |
ROS score (SD) | 33.91 (4.00) | 34.03 (4.18) | 33.69 (3.70) |
Subjective vitality score (SD) | 5.13 (0.95) | 5.06 (0.93) | 5.25 (0.99) |
a1 | a2 | b1 | b2 | b3 | c1 | c2 | c3 | c4 | c5 | c6 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Skyview factor (mean) | 0.376 | 0.489 | 0.528 | 0.454 | 0.345 | 0.355 | 0.045 | 0.310 | 1.000 | 0.104 | 0.047 |
Aspect ratio | 0.375 | 1.200 | 0.840 | 0.610 | 0.900 | 4.000 | 4.000 | 0.280 | 0.030 | 6.670 | 6.470 |
Boundary enclosure | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 2 |
Green view index | 0.430 | 0.033 | 0.004 | 0.375 | 0.094 | 0.569 | 0.564 | 0.670 | 0.110 | 0.418 | 0.370 |
Colorfulness index | 25 | 64 | 10 | 30 | 50 | 15 | 20 | 8 | 10 | 7 | 8 |
Water facility | No | Yes | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | Yes |
Number of seats | 4 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 4 |
Road pavement | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | No |
Fixed Effects | Coefficient (SE) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Null Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |
Age (60–69 as reference) | |||
70–79 | 0.199 (0.554) | 0.320 (0.527) | |
Above 80 | 1.197 * (0.672) | 1.018 (0.637) | |
Sex (male as reference) | |||
Female | −0.521 (0.472) | −0.669 (0.467) | |
Health status (poor as reference) | |||
Healthy | −0.912 (1.809) | −0.277 (1.690) | |
Not very healthy | −2.107 (1.826) | −1.715 (1.701) | |
Length of residency (less than 1 year as reference) | |||
1–3 years | 1.549 (3.161) | 1.658 (2.934) | |
More than 3 years | 0.660 (3.012) | 0.541 (2.778) | |
Visit frequency (1–2 times per week as reference) | |||
3–4 times per week | −0.048 (0.492) | 0.107 (0.494) | |
Time spent | |||
10–30 min | 2.716 ** (0.941) | 2.971 ** (0.945) | |
More than 30 min | 3.313 *** (0.887) | 3.196 *** (0.893) | |
Reason to visit (exercise as reference) | |||
Socializing | 0.862 (0.773) | 0.531 (0.750) | |
Relaxation | 0.714 (0.693) | 0.636 (0.606) | |
Companionship | 3.405 ***(0.725) | 2.295 *** (0.722) | |
Passing by/living near | −0.292 (1.150) | 0.313 (1.132) | |
Access feature (less than 10 min walking as reference) | |||
10–20 min walking | −0.018 (0.504) | ||
More than 20 min walking | −0.380 (0.777) | ||
Spatial form features | |||
Sky view factor | −7.906 * (3.346) | ||
Boundary enclosure | 1.901 ** (0.665) | ||
Aspect ratio | −0.319 (0.386) | ||
Natural features | |||
Green view index | −4.800 * (2.791) | ||
Colorfulness index | −3.681 (6.326) | ||
Water features (no as reference) | −2.226 (2.105) | ||
Facility features | |||
Number of seats | 0.502 *** (0.110) | ||
Pavement (unpaved as reference) | −1.316 (1.788) | ||
Thermal feature | |||
PET | −0.239 *** (0.066) | ||
Intercept | 34.236 *** (0.610) | 31.233 *** (3.778) | 33.940 *** (4.479) |
Random effects | |||
ICC | 0.183 | 0.249 | 9.13e-20 |
AIC | 1106.4 | 953.9 | 872.959 |
Log likelihood | −550.200 | −459.945 | −408.480 |
Fixed Effects | Coefficient (SE) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Null Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | |
Age (60–69 as reference) | |||
70–79 | 0.291 ** (0.118) | 0.262 * (0.112) | |
Above 80 | 0.524 ***(0.142) | 0.480 ***(0.135) | |
Sex (male as reference) | |||
Female | 0.293 ** (0.100) | 0.181 (0.099) | |
Health status (poor as reference) | |||
Healthy | 0.569 (0.383) | 0.531 (0.359) | |
Not very healthy | 0.316 (0.386) | 0.226 (0.361) | |
Length of residency (less than 1 year as reference) | |||
1–3 years | −0.375 (0.669) | −0.149 (0.623) | |
More than 3 years | −0.167 (0.638) | −0.090 (0.589) | |
Visit frequency (1–2 times per week as reference) | |||
3–4 times per week | −0.024 (0.105) | −0.010 (0.105) | |
Time spent | |||
10–30 min | 0.207 (0.199) | 0.292 (0.200) | |
More than 30 min | 0.550 ** (0.188) | 0.539 ** (0.189) | |
Reason to visit (exercise as reference) | |||
Socializing | −0.205 (0.166) | −0.154 (0.159) | |
Relaxation | 0.137 (0.152) | 0.177 (0.128) | |
Companionship | 0.501 ***(0.154) | 0.389 ** (0.153) | |
Passing by/living near | −0.311 (0.245) | −0.153 (0.240) | |
Access feature (less than 10 min walking as reference) | |||
10–20 min walking | −0.001 (0.107) | ||
More than 20 min walking | −0.011 (0.165) | ||
Spatial form features | |||
Sky view factor | −1.273 (0.710) | ||
Boundary enclosure | 0.598 *** (0.141) | ||
Aspect ratio | 0.485 *** (0.082) | ||
Natural features | |||
Green view index | −2.329 *** (0.592) | ||
Colorfulness index | 12.287 *** (1.342) | ||
Water features (no as reference) | −3.158 *** (0.500) | ||
Facility features | |||
Number of seats | 0.024 (0.023) | ||
Pavement (unpaved as reference) | −2.806 *** (0.379) | ||
Thermal feature | |||
PET | −0.005 (0.014) | ||
Intercept | 4.913 *** (0.190) | 3.761 *** (0.812) | 1.994 * (0.950) |
Random effects | |||
ICC | 0.384 | 0.453 | 2.63e-17 |
AIC | 473.416 | 399.693 | 345.839 |
Log likelihood | −233.708 | −182.847 | −144.919 |
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Lu, S.; Oh, W.; Ooka, R.; Wang, L. Effects of Environmental Features in Small Public Urban Green Spaces on Older Adults’ Mental Restoration: Evidence from Tokyo. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 5477. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095477
Lu S, Oh W, Ooka R, Wang L. Effects of Environmental Features in Small Public Urban Green Spaces on Older Adults’ Mental Restoration: Evidence from Tokyo. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(9):5477. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095477
Chicago/Turabian StyleLu, Shan, Wonseok Oh, Ryozo Ooka, and Lijun Wang. 2022. "Effects of Environmental Features in Small Public Urban Green Spaces on Older Adults’ Mental Restoration: Evidence from Tokyo" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 9: 5477. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095477