Assessment of Subjective Well-Being in a Cohort of University Students and Staff Members: Association with Physical Activity and Outdoor Leisure Time during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- the simultaneous use of multiple complementary measurement tools to comparatively assess the mental health perceptions of an Italian subpopulation of young university students versus a subpopulation of adult university employees during a specific period of the pandemic COVID-19;
- the assessment of the levels of PA, leisure activity and perception of energy levels in the two subpopulations during the same period;
- evaluating the association between (1) and (2) through correlation analyses and a mediation model, which combine the role of time spent in nature, perceived individual energy level, and social relationships on the relationship between PA and subjective well-being.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Ethics
2.2. Procedure and Measures
- Socio-demographic characteristics (age, sex, nationality, marital status, cohousing conditions, total household income per month, employment status);
- Body health status (based on the reported weight and height by the participants and the estimation of the body mass index (BMI), as well as by the self-reported declaration of any recent diagnosed disease (yes/no);
- Comprehensive evaluation of the mental health perception. We applied three independent psychological tools.
- 4.
- Energy levels. The evaluation of energy levels was computed on three items adapted from the Lee’s Fatigue scale [51]: (1) Last week, how energetic did you normally feel in the middle of the day?; (2) Last week, how tired did you normally feel in the middle of the day?; and (3) Last week, how efficient did you normally feel in the middle of the day?. Total score was calculated as the average of all three items (Table 1).
- 5.
- Physical activity habits. The evaluation of the levels of PA of the participants was conducted by administering the following ad hoc question: If you practice sport, on average, last month, how frequently did you practice exercise? The answer was given according to the 4-point Likert scale and pass through points 0 = Never; 1 = Occasionally, but not regularly; 2 = Regularly, less than 150 min per week; 3 = Regularly, 150 min or more per week. The cut-off points were: low (never or occasionally) and moderate/high (regularly).
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participants Sociodemographic Characteristics and Body Health Status
3.2. Evaluation of Distress and Subjective Well-Being in the Student and Staff Member Subpopulations
3.3. Validation of the 9-Item SWB Index with the Two Subdomains
3.4. Distribution of PA Levels among Students and Staff Members
3.5. Association between Distress, SWB, Physical Activities Levels and Time Spent in Nature
3.6. Mediation Models
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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What Measure | Original Items Number | ||
---|---|---|---|
DASS-21 | Distress | Depression | 3. I could not seem to experience any positive feeling at all; |
5. I found it difficult to work up the initiative to do things; | |||
10. I felt that I had nothing to look forward to; | |||
13. I felt down-hearted and blue; | |||
16. I was unable to become enthusiastic about anything | |||
17. I felt I was not worth much as a person; | |||
21. I felt that life was meaningless; | |||
Anxiety | 2. I was aware of dryness of my mouth; | ||
4. I experienced breathing difficulty (e.g., excessively rapid breathing, breathlessness in the absence of physical exertion); | |||
7. I experienced trembling (e.g., in the hands) | |||
9. I was worried about situations in which I might panic and make a fool of myself; | |||
15. I felt I was close to panic; | |||
19. I was aware of the action of my heart in the absence of physical exertion (e.g., sense of heart rate increase, heart missing a beat); | |||
20. I felt scared without any good reason; | |||
Stress | 1. I found it hard to wind down; | ||
6. I tended to over-react to situations; | |||
8. I felt that I was using a lot of nervous energy; | |||
11. I found myself getting agitated; | |||
12. I found it difficult to relax; | |||
14. I was intolerant of anything that kept me from getting on with what I was doing; | |||
18. I felt that I was rather touchy; | |||
WHOQoL Brief | Psychological health (PH) | 5. How much do you enjoy your life?; | |
6. To what extent do you feel your life is meaningful?; | |||
7. How well can you concentrate?; | |||
11. Can you accept your physical appearance?; | |||
19. How satisfied are you with yourself?; | |||
26. How often do you have negative feelings such as bad mood, despair, anxiety, depression?; | |||
Social relationships (SR) | 20. How satisfied are you with your personal relationships?; | ||
21. How satisfied are you with your sex life?; | |||
22. How satisfied are you with the support you get from your friends? | |||
General health (GH) | How satisfied are you with your health? | ||
Subjective well-being (SWB) | 9-item SWB | C1 (positive domain) | 1.How satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days? |
2. To what extent do you feel that the things you do in life are worthwhile?; | |||
3. How happy did you feel during the last week?; | |||
8.Last week, how energetic did you normally feel in the middle of the day? | |||
9. Last week, how efficient did you normally feel in the middle of the day? | |||
C2 (negative domain) | 4. How worried did you feel during the last week? | ||
5. Did you feel depressed during the last week? | |||
6. During last week, how often did you feel nervous and stressed? | |||
7. During last week, how often did you feel that you were unable to cope with all the thing you had | |||
Energy level | 8.Last week, how energetic did you normally feel in the middle of the day? | ||
9. Last week, how efficient did you normally feel in the middle of the day? | |||
10. Last week, how tired did you normally feel in the middle of the day? |
Students | Staff | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
N (%) | 939 | 238 | <0.001 |
Sex distribution, N (%): | |||
Male | 235 (25.0) | 109 (45.8) | |
Female | 704 (75.0) | 129 (54.2) | |
Age distribution (years), N (%) | <0.001 | ||
18–24 y | 586 (62.4) | 0 (0) | |
25–34 y | 274 (29.2) | 8 (3.4) | |
35–44 y | 47 (5.0) | 38 (16.0) | |
45–54 y | 26 (2.8) | 96 (40.3) | |
55–64 y | 5 (0.5) | 86 (36.1) | |
>65 y | 1 (0.1) | 10 (4.2) | |
Marital status, N (%) | <0.001 | ||
Single | 676 (71.9) | 58 (24.3) | |
Married or analogous relationship | 263 (28.0) | 180 (75.6) | |
Having children N (%) | <0.001 | ||
No | 886 (94.4) | 75 (31.5) | |
Yes | 53 (5.6) | 163 (68.5) | |
Cohabitants | <0.001 | ||
Median (IQR) | 4.00 (1.00) | 3.00 (2.00) | |
Mean ± SD | 3.69 ± 0.99 | 2.92 ± 1.17 | |
Family income N (%) | <0.001 | ||
<500€ | 51 (5.4) | 0 (0) | |
500–1000€ | 143 (15.2) | 1 (0.4) | |
1000–1500€ | 272 (29.0) | 28 (11.8) | |
1500–2000€ | 215 (22.9) | 45 (18.9) | |
2000–2500€ | 143 (15.2) | 44 (18.5) | |
>2500€ | 115 (12.2) | 120 (50.4) | |
BMI (Kg/m2) | <0.001 | ||
Median (IQR) | 22.48 (5.00) | 24.22 (4.00) | |
Mean ± SD | 23.14 ± 4.21 | 24.88 ± 4.00 | |
BMI distribution 1, N (%) | 0.002 | ||
Underweight | 72 (7.7) | 1 (0.4) | |
Normal weight | 633 (67.4) | 137 (57.6) | |
Overweight | 183 (19.5) | 77 (32.4) | |
Obese | 51 (5.4) | 23 (9.7) | |
Diagnosed pathologies, N (%) | 0.002 | ||
No | 816 (86.9) | 188 (79.0) | |
Yes | 123 (13.1) | 50 (21.0) |
Students | Staff | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Severity | (N) | % | N | % | p Value |
DASS—Depression | |||||
Normal (range: 0–9) | 405 | 43.2 | 184 | 77.3 | <0.001 |
Mild (range: 10–12) | 126 | 13.4 | 23 | 9.7 | 0.127 |
Moderate (range: 13–20) | 213 | 22.7 | 21 | 8.8 | <0.001 |
Severe (range: 21–27) | 95 | 10.1 | 5 | 2.1 | <0.001 |
Extremely severe (range: 28–42) | 100 | 10.6 | 5 | 2.1 | <0.001 |
DASS—Anxiety | |||||
Normal (range: 0–6) | 571 | 60.8 | 206 | 86.7 | <0.001 |
Mild (range: 7–9) | 78 | 8.3 | 12 | 5 | 0.09 |
Moderate (range: 10–14) | 152 | 16.2 | 13 | 5.5 | <0.001 |
Severe (range: 15–19) | 58 | 6.2 | 3 | 1.3 | 0.001 |
Extremely severe (range: 20–42) | 80 | 8.5 | 4 | 1.7 | <0.001 |
DASS—Stress | |||||
Normal (range: 0–10) | 469 | 49.9 | 187 | 78.6 | <0.001 |
Mild (range: 11–18) | 64 | 6.8 | 14 | 5.9 | 0.605 |
Moderate (range: 19–26) | 215 | 23 | 23 | 9.7 | <0.001 |
Severe (range: 27–34) | 128 | 13.6 | 12 | 5 | <0.001 |
Extremely severe (range: 35–42) | 63 | 6.7 | 2 | 0.8 | <0.001 |
N 1 (Valid Population) | Comparison Tool | Correlation 2 (r, p Value) | ICC 3 (95% CI, p Value) |
---|---|---|---|
9-item SWB index | |||
Students (939) | WHOQoL psychological health domain | 0.762, <0.001 Strong positive correlation | 0.713 (0.673, 0.747; <0.001) Moderate |
DASS-21 distress | −0.801, <0.001 Strong negative correlation | not calculable | |
Staff (238) | WHOQoL psychological health domain | 0.734, <0.001 Strong positive correlation | 0.678 (0.585, 0.751; <0.001) Moderate |
DASS-21 distress | −0.784, <0.001 Strong negative correlation | not calculable | |
C1 (positive) | |||
Students (939) | WHOQoL psychological health domain | 0.753, <0.001 Strong positive correlation | 0.715 (0.676, 0.750; <0.001) Moderate |
Staff (238) | WHOQoL psychological health domain | 0.712, <0.001 Strong positive correlation | 0.695 (0.606, 0.764; <0.001) Moderate |
C2 (negative) | |||
Students (939) | DASS-21 distress | 0.740, <0.001 Strong positive correlation | 0.557 (0.496, 0.610; <0.001) Moderate |
DASS-21 depression | 0.663, <0.001 Moderate positive correlation | 0.586 (0.529, 0.636; <0.001) Moderate | |
DASS-21 stress | 0.745, <0.001 Strong positive correlation | 0.620 (0.568, 0.666; <0.001) Moderate | |
DASS-21 anxiety | 0.543, <0.001 Moderate positive correlation | 0.420 (0.341, 0.490; <0.001) Poor | |
Staff (238) | DASS-21 distress | 0.762, <0.001 Strong positive correlation | 0.442 (0.279, 0.568; <0.001) Poor |
DASS-21 depression | 0.676, <0.001 Moderate positive correlation | 0.463 (0.307, 0.584; <0.001) Poor | |
DASS-21 stress | 0.760, <0.001 Strong positive correlation | 0.551 (0.421, 0.652; <0.001) Moderate | |
DASS-21 anxiety | 0.524, <0.001 Moderate positive correlation | 0.265 (0.052, 0.431; 0.009) Poor |
Students | Staff | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Sport practising, N (%) | 0.003 | ||
Never | 270 (28.8) | 97 (40.8) | |
Occasionally | 297 (31.6) | 57 (23.9) | |
Regularly (<150 min per week) | 158 (16.8) | 31 (13.0) | |
Regularly (>150 min per week) | 214 (22.8) | 53 (22.3) | |
Leisure activity, N (%) | 0.006 | ||
Activities that do not require physical activity | 301 (32.1) | 62 (26.1) | |
Relaxing activities sometimes per week | 311 (33.1) | 105 (44.1) | |
Sport or intense physical activity | 327 (34.8) | 71 (29.8) | |
Time spent in nature, N (%) | 0.06 | ||
Never | 131 (14.0) | 34 (14.2) | |
Occasionally | 276 (29.4) | 48 (20.2) | |
Sometimes | 290 (30.9) | 84 (35.3) | |
Frequently | 171 (18.2) | 54 (22.7) | |
Almost all the time | 71 (7.6) | 18 (7.6) |
Sport Practice | Physical Activity in Leisure Time | Time Spent in Nature | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Moderate/High | p Value | Effect Size (r) | Low | Moderate/High | p Value | Effect Size (r) | Low | Moderate/High | p Value | Effect Size (r) | |
Students | ||||||||||||
DASS—Depression | ||||||||||||
N (%) Mean ± SD | 567 (60.4) 1.00 ± 0.73 | 372 (39.6) 0.81 ± 0.69 | <0.001 | 0.14 Small | 612 (65.2) 0.98 ± 0.73 | 327 (34.8) 0.82 ± 0.70 | 0.001 | 0.12 Small | 407 (43.3) 1.04 ± 0.74 | 532 (56.7) 0.84 ± 0.71 | <0.001 | 0.14 Small |
DASS—Anxiety | ||||||||||||
N (%) Mean ± SD | 567 (60.4) 0.60 ± 0.57 | 372 (39.6) 0.42 ± 0.47 | <0.001 | 0.16 Small | 612 (65.2) 0.59 ± 0.57 | 327 (34.8) 0.41 ± 0.46 | <0.001 | 0.16 Small | 407 (43.3) 0.63 ± 0.58 | 532 (56.7) 0.45 ± 0.49 | <0.001 | 0.17 Small |
DASS—Stress | ||||||||||||
N (%) Mean ± SD | 567 (60.4) 1.24 ± 0.70 | 372 (39.6) 1.07 ± 0.67 | <0.001 | 0.12 Small | 612 (65.2) 1.23 ± 0.70 | 327 (34.8) 1.08 ± 0.68 | 0.003 | 0.10 Small | 407 (43.3) 1.32 ± 0.68 | 532 (56.7) 1.07 ± 0.68 | <0.001 | 0.18 Small |
9-item SWB index | ||||||||||||
N (%) Mean ± SD | 567 (60.4) 5.45 ± 1.53 | 372 (39.6) 6.01 ± 1.52 | <0.001 | 0.19 Small | 612 (65.2) 5.53 ± 1.54 | 327 (34.8) 5.93 ± 1.52 | <0.001 | 0.14 Small | 407 (43.3) 5.34 ± 1.52 | 532 (56.7) 5.93 ± 1.52 | <0.001 | 0.19 Small |
Staff | ||||||||||||
DASS—Depression | ||||||||||||
N (%) Mean ± SD | 154 (64.7) 0.45 ± 0.48 | 84 (35.3) 0.37 ± 0.49 | 0.282 | 0.07 NS | 167 (70.2) 0.46 ± 0.52 | 71 (29.8) 0.32 ± 0.36 | 0.014 | 0.12 Small | 82 (34.5) 0.49 ± 0.53 | 156 (65.5) 0.38 ± 0.45 | 0.119 | 0.11 NS |
DASS—Anxiety | ||||||||||||
N (%) Mean ± SD | 154 (64.7) 0.24 ± 0.29 | 84 (35.3) 0.23 ± 0.33 | 0.797 | 0.04 NS | 167 (70.2) 0.26 ± 0.32 | 71 (29.8) 0.19 ± 0.27 | 0.089 | 0.10 NS | 82 (34.5) 0.28 ± 0.36 | 156 (65.5) 0.22 ± 0.27 | 0.161 | 0.007 NS |
DASS—Stress | ||||||||||||
N (%) Mean ± SD | 154 (64.7) 0.75 ± 0.55 | 84 (35.3) 0.69 ± 0.54 | 0.449 | 0.05 NS | 167 (70.2) 0.74 ± 0.56 | 71 (29.8) 0.71 ± 0.53 | 0.685 | 0.002 NS | 82 (34.5) 0.82 ± 0.57 | 156 (65.5) 0.68 ± 0.54 | 0.068 | 0.12 NS |
9-item SWB index | ||||||||||||
N (%) Mean ± SD | 154 (64.7) 6.60 ± 1.35 | 84 (35.3) 7.03 ± 1.49 | 0.031 | 0.14 Small | 167 (70.2) 6.62 ± 1.43 | 71 (29.8) 7.06 ± 1.33 | 0.023 | 0.13 Small | 82 (34.5) 6.51 ± 1.33 | 156 (65.5) 6.88 ± 1.44 | 0.055 | 0.10 NS |
Parameters | Sport Practice (Spearman ρ/p Values) (1) | PA in Leisure Time * (Spearman ρ/p Values) (1) | Time Spent in Nature (Spearman ρ/p Values) (1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Students | Staff | Students | Staff | Students | Staff | |
SWB | ||||||
9-item SWB | 0.102/0.002 | 0.135/0.041 | 0.083/0.012 | 0.147/0.026 | 0.163/<0.001 | 0.097/0.143 |
C1 (positive) | 0.133/<0.001 | 0.116/0.080 | 0.115/<0.001 | 0.086/0.191 | 0.163/<0.001 | 0.98/0.138 |
C2 (negative) | −0.045/0.172 | −0.102/0.125 | −0.025/0.443 | −0.130/0.049 | −0.121/<0.001 | −0.075/0.257 |
Energy level | 0.187/<0.001 | 0.184/0.005 | 0.194/<0.001 | 0.170/0.010 | 0.187/<0.001 | 0.198/0.003 |
WHOQoL-Brief | ||||||
Psychological health | 0.072/0.028 | 0.243/<0.001 | 0.049/0.131 | 0.208/0.001 | 0.106/0.001 | 0.142/0.032 |
General health | 0.374/<0.001 | 0.396/<0.001 | 0.351/<0.001 | 0.360/<0.000 | 0.160/<0.001 | 0.209/0.001 |
DASS-21 | ||||||
Stress | −0.039/0.235 | −0.082/0.218 | −0.051/0.118 | −0.036/0.592 | −0.116/<0.001 | −0.096/0.148 |
Anxiety | −0.111/<0.001 | −0.075/0.257 | −0.119/<0.001 | −0.061/0.356 | −0.134/<0.001 | −0.036/0.586 |
Depression | −0.067/0.042 | −0.080/0.228 | −0.070/0.036 | −0.069/0.297 | 0.097/0.003 | −0.124/0.060 |
Distress | −0.081/0.014 | −0.097/0.143 | −0.087/0.008 | −0.061/0.355 | −0.134/<0.001 | −0.107/0.107 |
Path | β | SE | p | 95%CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boot_LLCI | Boot_ULCI | |||||
Sport practice→ | 9-item SWB | 0.045 | 0.26 | 0.083 | −0.094 | 0.007 |
Time spent in nature | 0.224 | 0.029 | <0.000 | 0.168 | 0.281 | |
Quality of social relationship | 0.073 | 0.021 | <0.001 | 0.031 | 0.115 | |
Energy levels | 0.205 | 0.039 | <0.000 | 0.128 | 0.282 | |
Time spent in nature→ | 9-item SWB | 0.042 | 0.026 | 0.101 | −0.007 | 0.089 |
Quality of social relationship | 0.086 | 0.021 | <0.001 | 0.044 | 0.128 | |
Energy levels | 0.210 | 0.038 | <0.001 | 0.133 | 0.286 | |
Quality of social relationship→ | 9-item SWB | 0.402 | 0.037 | <0.001 | 0.324 | 0.481 |
Energy levels | 0.571 | 0.054 | <0.001 | 0.455 | 0.689 | |
Energy levels→ | 9-item SWB | 0.635 | 0.019 | <0.001 | 0.595 | 0.673 |
Indirect paths | ||||||
Sport practice→Time spent in nature→9-item SWB | 0.007 | 0.004 | / | −0.001 | 0.015 | |
Sport practice→Quality of social relationship→9-item SWB | 0.021 | 0.006 | / | 0.009 | 0.034 | |
Sport practice→Energy levels→9-item SWB | 0.093 | 0.018 | / | 0.058 | 0.129 | |
Sport practice→Time spent in nature→quality of social relationship→9-item SWB | 0.006 | 0.002 | / | 0.003 | 0.009 | |
Sport practice→Time spent in nature→Energy levels→9-item SWB | 0.021 | 0.005 | / | 0.013 | 0.032 | |
Sport practice→Quality of social relationship→Energy levels→9-item SWB | 0.019 | 0.006 | / | 0.008 | 0.031 | |
Sport practice→Time spent in nature→Quality of social relationship→Energy levels→9-item SWB | 0.005 | 0.001 | / | 0.002 | 0.008 |
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Quarta, S.; Levante, A.; García-Conesa, M.-T.; Lecciso, F.; Scoditti, E.; Carluccio, M.A.; Calabriso, N.; Damiano, F.; Santarpino, G.; Verri, T.; et al. Assessment of Subjective Well-Being in a Cohort of University Students and Staff Members: Association with Physical Activity and Outdoor Leisure Time during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4787. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084787
Quarta S, Levante A, García-Conesa M-T, Lecciso F, Scoditti E, Carluccio MA, Calabriso N, Damiano F, Santarpino G, Verri T, et al. Assessment of Subjective Well-Being in a Cohort of University Students and Staff Members: Association with Physical Activity and Outdoor Leisure Time during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(8):4787. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084787
Chicago/Turabian StyleQuarta, Stefano, Annalisa Levante, María-Teresa García-Conesa, Flavia Lecciso, Egeria Scoditti, Maria Annunziata Carluccio, Nadia Calabriso, Fabrizio Damiano, Giuseppe Santarpino, Tiziano Verri, and et al. 2022. "Assessment of Subjective Well-Being in a Cohort of University Students and Staff Members: Association with Physical Activity and Outdoor Leisure Time during the COVID-19 Pandemic" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 8: 4787. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084787
APA StyleQuarta, S., Levante, A., García-Conesa, M. -T., Lecciso, F., Scoditti, E., Carluccio, M. A., Calabriso, N., Damiano, F., Santarpino, G., Verri, T., Pinto, P., Siculella, L., & Massaro, M. (2022). Assessment of Subjective Well-Being in a Cohort of University Students and Staff Members: Association with Physical Activity and Outdoor Leisure Time during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(8), 4787. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084787