Nature-Based Interventions for Psychological Wellbeing in Long-Term Conditions: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Selection
2.2. Eligibility Criteria
2.2.1. Inclusion Criteria
- Nature-based intervention conducted inside or outside or animal-based intervention conducted in outdoors environments;
- Involves an active intervention rather than just passive proximity to, e.g., greenspace;
- Studies with a minimum of 50% participants with at least one diagnosed long-term physical health condition, limited to cardiovascular disease, stroke, lung and liver disease, type II diabetes or chronic kidney disease, but not excluding other co-morbidities;
- Measuring psychometrically robust psychological outcomes, including (but not limited to) QoL.
2.2.2. Exclusion Criteria
- Not specific to long-term conditions listed above;
- Participants within end-of-life pathways (e.g., palliative care).
2.3. Search Strategy
2.4. Data Extraction
2.5. Quality Appraisal
3. Results
3.1. Study Characteristics
Author (Year) | Research Design | Participants | Intervention | Control | Psychological Measurements | Psychological Outcomes | Physiological Measurements | Physiological Outcomes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beinotti et al. (2013) [34] | Single-blind RCT | 20 patients (6 female) ≥1 year post-stroke Mean age 55.5 years | 16 weeks physio and horse-riding therapy (10 participants) Mean age 59 years | 16 weeks physio only (10 participants) Mean age 52 years | Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short-Form health survey Measurements before and after the intervention | Significant improvement in functional capacity, physical aspects and mental health following horseback riding therapy compared to controls. No changes in general health state, vitality or emotional aspects | N/A | N/A |
Chun et al. (2017) [45] | Two-sample randomised cohort | 59 participants (19 female) Mean age 60.8 years (SD 9.1) | Forest therapy programme (30 participants) 4-day trip involving meditation, experiencing the forest and walking | Urban comparison (29 participants) 4-day trip involving meditation and walking in the hotel | Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D17) Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) Measurements before and after the intervention | Reduced BDI, HAM-D17 and STAI scores following forest therapy programme compared to baseline. Increased STAI scores in urban group following programme | Oxidative stress: total oxidant capacity and iron-reducing activity Measurements before and after the intervention | No significant differences between forest and urban groups |
Pohl et al. (2018) [46] | Qualitative exploration | 18 participants (6 female) Mean age 60.3 1–5 years post-stroke | 12-week multi-modal intervention incorporating horseback riding | No comparison group | Individual face-to-face semi-structured interviews | Four themes identified: transformative experiences, human–horse interaction, togetherness and belonging, and the all-in-one solution | N/A | N/A |
Jia et al. (2016) [47] | Two-sample randomised cohort | 20 COPD patients (6 female) Mean age 70.1 years | Forest walking (10 participants) Mean age 70.1 (range 67–77) 7 days at forest site with scheduled walking time, staying in a hotel | City walking (8 participants) Mean age 70 (range 61–79) 7 days at city site with scheduled walking time, staying in a hotel | Profile of Mood State (POMS) Measurements before and after the intervention | Lower POMS scores of “tension–anxiety”, “depression” and “anger–hostility” in forest but not city group | Lymphocytes: NK, NKT-like and CD8+ T-cells expression of intracellular perforin and granzyme B Pro-inflammatory cytokines: interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumour necrosis factorα (TNF-α) and C-reactive protein (CRP) COPD-associated factors: pulmonary and activation-regulated chemokine (PARC/CCL-18), surfactant protein D (SP-D) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP-1) Stress hormones: serum cortisol and epinephrine Measurements before and after the intervention | Lymphocytes: no significant group difference in proportion of NK, NKT-like and CD8+ T-cells, nor their expression of granzyme B. Significant reduction of NK, NKT-like and CD8+ T-cell expression of intracellular perforin after forest bathing but not city group. Pro-inflammatory cytokines: significant reduction of IFN-γ, IL-6 and IL-8 after forest bathing but not city group. Slight decrease in IL-1β, TNF-α and CRP after forest bathing but not city group. COPD-associated factors: significant decrease in PARC/CCL-18 TIMP-1 after forest bathing but not city group. No significant change in SP-D in either group. Stress hormones: significant decrease in serum cortisol and epinephrine after forest bathing but not city group |
Song et al. (2015) [52] | Two-sample randomised cross-over cohort study | 20 male participants with high-normal blood pressure (HNBP) or hypertension Mean age 58.0 years (SD 10.6) | Forest walking 17 min walk All participants completed both interventions on 2 consecutive days (10 in each group, counterbalanced: forest first vs urban first) | Urban walking 17 min walk | Semantic Differential (SD) method Profile of Mood State (POMS) Measurements taken at end of each walk | Increased SD scores of “comfortable”, “relaxed” and “natural” after waking in forest area compared with urban area. Reduced negative POMS scores of “tension–anxiety”, “depression”, “anger–hostility”, “fatigue” and “confusion”, with increased “vigour” after walking in forest area compared to urban area | Heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate Measures collected at 1 min intervals and averaged over the 17 min course | Significantly higher parasympathetic activity during forest walking compared to urban walking. No significant difference in sympathetic nerve activity between groups. Significantly lower mean heart rate during forest walking compared to urban walking. Physiological measures were significantly related to the differences in air temperature and humidity between the forest and urban environments |
Li et al. (2016) [53] | Single-sample cross-over cohort study | 19 male participants with high-normal blood pressure (HNBP) or hypertension Mean age 51.2 years (SD 8.8) | Forest walking Day trip All participants completed both interventions. Urban first | Urban walking Day trip | Profile of Mood State (POMS) Measurements taken before, during and after each intervention | Reduced POMS (D), (A), (F), (C) and increased (V) in forest walking but not city walking. City group also had increased (D) | Blood pressure and heart rate. Serum triglycerides, total cholesterol (Cho), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) Cho, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) Cho and remnant-like particles (RLP) Cho, serum adiponectin, blood glucose, serum insulin, serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEA-S), serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP). Urinary adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine (corrected for creatinine) Blood and urine collected in the morning before and after each day trip. Blood pressure and heart rate measured by an ambulatory monitor every 20 min | No significant difference in blood pressure between forest and urban day trips. Significant decrease in heart rate during forest walking compared to urban walking. No significant change in serum triglycerides, Cho, LDL Cho, HDL Cho, and RLP Cho, blood glucose, serum insulin, serum DHEA-S, or hs-CRP. Significant increase in serum adiponectin after forest but not urban day trips. Both forest and urban walking significantly reduced urinary noradrenaline. Non-significant decrease in urinary adrenaline after forest walking compared to urban walking. Significant decrease in urinary dopamine after forest walking compared to urban walking |
Ochiai et al. (2015) [54] | Single-sample cohort | 9 male participants with high-normal blood pressure (HNBP) Mean age 56.0 years (SD 13.0) | Forest therapy 1-day programme involving walking, sitting and lying down | No comparison group | Semantic Differential (SD) method Profile of Mood State (POMS) combined POMS Total Mood Disturbance (TDM) Measurements before and after the intervention | Increased SD scores of “relaxed” and “natural” after forest therapy compared with baseline. Reduced negative POMS scores of “tension–anxiety”, “confusion” and “anger–hostility”, and TDM after forest therapy. | Blood pressure Urinary adrenaline (corrected for creatinine) Serum cortisol Blood pressure collected during intervention using portable device. Urine and blood samples collected in the afternoon before and after the intervention | Significant decrease in blood pressure after forest therapy. Significant decrease in urinary adrenaline and serum cortisol after forest therapy |
Song et al. (2017) [55] | Two-sample, randomised cross-over cohort | 20 males with high-normal blood pressure or hypertension Mean age 58.0 years (SD 10.6) | Viewing forest landscape for 10 min while sitting (10 participants saw forest first, 10 saw urban first on 2 consecutive days) | Viewing urban landscape for 10 min while sitting | Modified semantic differential (SD) method completed after each viewing | Significantly increased scores of “comfortable”, “relaxed” and “natural” after viewing forest area compared to urban area | Heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate collected at 1 min intervals and averaged across the 10 min period | Significantly increased high-frequency HRV during forest compared to urban viewing. No significant difference between high-frequency/low-frequency heart rate significantly lower during forest compared to urban viewing |
Sung et al. (2012) [48] | Non-randomised controlled trial | 56 participants (22 female) with hypertension Mean age 64.5 years | 3-day CBT Forest Therapy programme including 2 recreational visits to forest sites (28 participants) Mean age 63 years (SD 11) 50% male | Provided with printed educational materials for hypertension management (28 participants) Mean age 66 years (SD 7) 28% male | QoL with 5 domains: General Health (GH), Physical Dimension (PD), Mental Dimension (MD), Social Dimension (SD and Hypertension-related Dimension (HTD). Measured at initial visit and at 8-week final visit | Forest group showed significantly increased total QoL scores after forest therapy. Increases in MD and HTD but not GH or SD. No significant change in control group | Blood pressure: measured at start and at end of 3-day program. Daily self-monitoring morning and evening from first until last day of study Salivary cortisol: collected at initial visit and 8-week final visit | Blood pressure: marginally significantly larger decrease in systolic blood pressure following forest therapy (at day 3). No change in diastolic blood pressure or either of self-measured at week 4 or 8. No significant longitudinal change in blood pressure in either group Salivary cortisol: significantly larger reduction following forest therapy and significant increase in control group |
Wu et al. (2020) [49] | Two-sample randomised cohort | 31 participants (12 female) with hypertension Mean age 73.7 years | Forest walking (20 participants) 2 days at forest site with scheduled walking, rest and staying in a hotel | City walking (11 participants) 2 days at city site with scheduled walking, rest and staying in a hotel | Profile of Mood State (POMS) Measurements before and after the intervention | Reduced negative POMS scores of “tension–anxiety”, “depression”, “confusion” and “fatigue”, as well as increased “vigour” after forest bathing compared to city walking group. | Blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation (SpO2%) and heart rate variability (HRV) Measurements taken in the morning before and after the intervention | Significant decrease in diastolic blood pressure, but not systolic blood pressure after forest bathing compared to controls Significant increase in SpO2% after forest bathing compared to controls No significant change in heart rate Significantly decreased in LF HRV and LF/HF HRV after forest bathing compared to controls. Significant increase in HF HRV after forest bathing compared to controls |
Mao et al. (2012) [56] | Two-sample randomised cohort | 24 patients with essential hypertension (does not specify sex or age) | Forest walking (12 participants) 7 days at forest site with scheduled walking time, staying in a hotel | City walking (12 participants) 7 days at city site with scheduled walking time, staying in a hotel | Profile of Mood State (POMS) Measurements before and after the intervention. | Lower POMS scores of “depression”, “anger-hostility”, “fatigue” and “confusion”, with increased “vigour” in forest but not city group | Blood pressure and heart rate Cytokines: homocysteine (Hcy), constituents of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) including renin, angiotensinogen (AGT), angiotensin II (Ang II), angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1), angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2) Cardiovascular disease-associated factors: serum interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factorα (TNF-α) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) Measurements taken in the morning before and after the intervention | Significant decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure after forest bathing compared to controls No significant change in heart rate Significant decrease in ET-1 and Hcy, RAS constituents including AGT, AT1, and AT2 after forest bathing compared to controls. Non-significant reduction in renin and Ang II after forest bathing compared to controls. Significant association between systolic blood pressure and Ang II, ET-1 and Hcy. Diastolic blood pressure was significantly associated with Ang II and ET-1. BP was poorly associated with the change in renin, AT1, and AGT Significant decrease in serum IL-6 after forest bathing compared to controlsNo significant change in TNF-α |
Mao et al. (2017) [50] | Two-sample randomised cohort | 33 participants (14 female) with Chronic Heart Failure Mean age 71.8 years | Forest walking 23 participants 4-day trip | City walking 10 participants 4-day trip | Profile of Mood State (POMS) Measurements before and after the intervention. | Reduced negative POMS scores of “tension–anxiety”, “depression”, “anger–hostility” and “confusion” compared to baseline in forest group but not city group. | High-sensitive-reactive protein (hCRP) Bio-markers for heart failure: BNP and NT-ProBNP Cardiovascular disease-related factors: ET-1, constituents of the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) including renin, angiotensinogen (AGT), angiotensin II (Ang II), angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1), angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2) Pro-inflammatory cytokines: interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factorα (TNF-α) Oxidative indicators: activity for serum total SOD (T-SOD) and lipid peroxidation reflected by malondialdehyde (MDA) Measurements taken in the morning before and after the intervention | Significant decrease in BNP after forest bathing compared to baseline. No significant difference in controls. No significant difference in NT-ProBNP in either group. Significant decrease in ET-1 after forest bathing compared to controls. No change in ET-1 and the five RAS constituents in the city group compared to baseline. Significant increase in AT2 after forest bathing compared to baseline. No significant difference in controls Significant decrease in serum IL-6 after forest bathing compared to controls. No significant changes in TNF-α or high-sensitive-reactive protein (hCRP) Significant decrease in serum MDA and significant increase in T-SOD after forest bathing compared to controls. No significant difference in controls |
Wichrowski et al. (2005) [51] | Two-sample cohort non-randomised | 107 participants (42 females) Inpatients on a phase I cardiac rehabilitation programme (does not specify age) | Horticultural therapy 59 participants single session | Patient education class 48 participants single session | Profile of Mood State (POMS) combined POMS Total Mood Disturbance (TDM) Measurements before and after the intervention | Reduced negative POMS scores of “tension”, “depression”, “anger”, “confusion” and “fatigue”, as well as increased “vigour” after horticultural therapy. TMD decreased after horticultural therapy. No changes following patient education class. | Heart rate before and after intervention | Significant decrease in heart rate following horticultural therapy, but no significant change following patient education class |
3.2. Psychological Outcomes
3.3. Physiological Outcomes
3.4. Qualitative Participant Experiences
3.5. Quality Appraisal
4. Discussion
4.1. Clinical Implications
4.2. Strengths and Limitations
4.3. Review Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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PICO | |
---|---|
P—Population | People with long-term physical health conditions limited to cardiovascular disease, stroke, lung and liver disease, type II diabetes and chronic kidney disease |
I—Intervention | Nature-, green- or outdoor animal-based interventions |
C—Comparison | Treatment as usual, urban environments or no comparison |
O—Outcome | Evaluation of effectiveness, as measured by improvements in psychological wellbeing and/or quality of life (QoL) |
Search Terms | |
---|---|
Nature-based interventions | ((garden* OR green OR horticultur* OR “nature-based” OR “nature based”) N2 (therap* OR intervention* OR proximity)) OR ((healing OR restorative OR wander) N2 garden) OR “green prescri*” OR “social prescri*” OR “nature prescri*” OR “nature play” OR “park prescri*” OR “garden prescri*” OR “green space*” OR greenspace* OR “green exercise” OR “green infrastructure” OR “community garden*” OR “community allotment*” OR allotment* OR “outdoor exercise” OR “blue space*” OR “blue gym*” OR “green gym*” OR “park prescri*” OR “eco therapy” OR “eco-therapy” OR “wilderness therapy” OR “wilderness-therapy” OR “care-farming” OR “care farming” OR “farm therapy” OR “farm-therapy” OR “forest bathing” OR “forest-bathing” OR “environmental volunteering” OR “wild play” OR “nature play” OR “animal assisted therap*” or “animal-assisted therap*” OR “animal therap*” OR “pet therap*” or “pet-assisted therapy” OR “equine assisted therap*” OR “equine-assisted therap*” OR “canine assisted therap*” OR “canine-assisted therap*” |
Long-term conditions | Cardiovascular or “cardiovascular disease” or Hypertension or “high blood pressure” or “Coronary Heart Disease” or “heart disease” or CHD or “Coronary Disease” or “vascular disease” or “Heart failure” or “Pulmonary Heart Disease” OR “Pulmonary disease” or “Respiratory disease” or Asthma or “Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease” or COPD OR “Liver disease” or “Chronic liver disease” or “liver cirrhosis” or “Fatty Liver” or Hepatitis or “hepatic disease” OR “type II diabetes” or “type two diabetes” or “type 2 diabetes” or Diabetes or T2DM or “diabetes mellitus” OR “Kidney disease” or “Chronic kidney disease” or CKD or “renal insufficiency” or “chronic renal insufficiency” or “renal disease” or “chronic renal disease” or “kidney failure” or “renal failure” or AKI or “acute kidney injury” |
Negative | Positive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Author (Date) [Ref] | Tension-Anxiety | Depression | Anger-Hostility | Fatigue | Confusion | Vigour |
Jia et al. (2016) [47] | + | + | + | |||
Song et al. (2015) [52] | + | + | + | + | + | + |
Li et al. (2016) [53] | + | + | + | + | + | |
Ochiai et al. (2015) [54] | + | + | + | |||
Wu et al. (2020) [49] | + | + | + | + | + | |
Mao et al. (2012) [56] | + | + | + | + | + | |
Mao et al. (2017) [50] | + | + | + | + | ||
Wichrowski et al. (2005) [51] | + | + | + | + | + | + |
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Taylor, E.M.; Robertson, N.; Lightfoot, C.J.; Smith, A.C.; Jones, C.R. Nature-Based Interventions for Psychological Wellbeing in Long-Term Conditions: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 3214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063214
Taylor EM, Robertson N, Lightfoot CJ, Smith AC, Jones CR. Nature-Based Interventions for Psychological Wellbeing in Long-Term Conditions: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(6):3214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063214
Chicago/Turabian StyleTaylor, Eleanor M., Noelle Robertson, Courtney J. Lightfoot, Alice C. Smith, and Ceri R. Jones. 2022. "Nature-Based Interventions for Psychological Wellbeing in Long-Term Conditions: A Systematic Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 6: 3214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063214
APA StyleTaylor, E. M., Robertson, N., Lightfoot, C. J., Smith, A. C., & Jones, C. R. (2022). Nature-Based Interventions for Psychological Wellbeing in Long-Term Conditions: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6), 3214. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063214