Unifying Evidence on Delay Discounting: Open Task, Analysis Tutorial, and Normative Data from an Italian Sample
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Delay Discounting Task
2.3. Data Analysis
2.4. Estimation of the Delay Discount Rate
2.5. Data Distribution
2.6. Inconsistent Preferences
2.7. Normative Data Estimation
2.8. Criterion Validity
2.9. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curves
2.10. Open Materials, Data, and Tutorials
3. Results
3.1. Inconsistent Preferences
3.2. Normative Data
3.3. Criterion Validity
3.4. ROC Curves
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Buczny, J. Delay of Gratification. In The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2020; pp. 153–157. [Google Scholar]
- Tobin, R.M.; Graziano, W.G. Delay of Gratification. In Handbook of Personality and Self-Regulation; Wiley-Blackwell: Oxford, UK, 2010; pp. 47–63. [Google Scholar]
- Mischel, W.; Shoda, Y.; Rodriguez, M.L. Delay of Gratification in Children. Science 1989, 244, 933–938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Metcalfe, J.; Mischel, W. A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower. Psychol. Rev. 1999, 106, 3–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Arbuthnott, K.D. Taking the long view: Environmental sustainability and delay of gratification. Anal. Soc. Issues Public Policy 2010, 10, 4–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Myerson, J.; Green, L. Discounting of delayed rewards: Models of individual choice. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 1995, 64, 263–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cardinal, R.N.; Pennicott, D.R.; Sugathapala, C.L.; Robbins, T.W.; Everitt, B.J. Impulsive choice induced in rats by lesions of the nucleus accumbens core. Science 2001, 292, 2499–2501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sellitto, M.; Ciaramelli, E.; Di Pellegrino, G. The neurobiology of intertemporal choice: Insight from imaging and lesion studies. Rev. Neurosci. 2011, 22, 565–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frederick, S.; Loewenstein, G.; O’Donoghue, T. Time discounting and time preference: A critical review. In Time and Decision: Economic and Psychological Perspectives on Intertemporal Choice; Russell Sage Foundation: New York, NY, USA, 2003; ISBN 9781610443661. [Google Scholar]
- Sellitto, M.; Di Pellegrino, G. The neuroscience of human intertemporal choice: State-of-the-art. In Neuroeconomics: Theory, Applications, and Perspectives, Proceedings of the 1 Officina di Neuroeconomia; Egea: Milano, Italy, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Takahashi, T. Loss of self-control in intertemporal choice may be attributable to logarithmic time-perception. Med. Hypotheses 2005, 65, 691–693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Benedict, R.H.B.; Fischer, J.S.; Beatty, W.W.; Bobholz, J.; Chelune, G.J.; Langdon, D.W.; Caruso, L.; Foley, F.; LaRocca, N.G.; Vowels, L.; et al. Minimal Neuropsychological Assessment of MS Patients: A Consensus Approach. Clin. Neuropsychol. (Neuropsychol. Dev. Cogn. Sect. D) 2002, 16, 381–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amlung, M.; Marsden, E.; Holshausen, K.; Morris, V.; Patel, H.; Vedelago, L.; Naish, K.R.; Reed, D.D.; McCabe, R.E. Delay Discounting as a Transdiagnostic Process in Psychiatric Disorders: A Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 2019, 76, 1176–1186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bickel, W.K.; Athamneh, L.N.; Basso, J.C.; Mellis, A.M.; DeHart, W.B.; Craft, W.H.; Pope, D. Excessive discounting of delayed reinforcers as a trans-disease process: Update on the state of the science. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 2019, 30, 59–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bulley, A.; Schacter, D.L. Deliberating trade-offs with the future. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2020, 4, 238–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bickel, W.K.; Odum, A.L.; Madden, G.J. Impulsivity and cigarette smoking: Delay discounting in current, never, and ex-smokers. Psychopharmacology 1999, 146, 447–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vuchinich, R.E.; Simpson, C.A. Hyperbolic temporal discounting in social drinkers and problem drinkers. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1998, 6, 292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kirby, K.N.; Petry, N.M.; Bickel, W.K. Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 1999, 128, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jaroni, J.L.; Wright, S.M.; Lerman, C.; Epstein, L.H. Relationship between education and delay discounting in smokers. Addict. Behav. 2004, 29, 1171–1175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- MacKillop, J.; Amlung, M.T.; Few, L.R.; Ray, L.A.; Sweet, L.H.; Munafò, M.R. Delayed reward discounting and addictive behavior: A meta-analysis. Psychopharmacology 2011, 216, 305–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Barkley, R.A.; Murphy, K.R.; Bush, T. Time perception and reproduction in young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology 2001, 15, 351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holt, D.D.; Green, L.; Myerson, J. Is discounting impulsive? Evidence from temporal and probability discounting in gambling and non-gambling college students. Behav. Process. 2003, 64, 355–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weller, R.E.; Cook, E.W.; Avsar, K.B.; Cox, J.E. Obese women show greater delay discounting than healthy-weight women. Appetite 2008, 51, 563–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schiff, S.; Amodio, P.; Testa, G.; Nardi, M.; Montagnese, S.; Caregaro, L.; Di Pellegrino, G.; Sellitto, M. Impulsivity toward food reward is related to BMI: Evidence from intertemporal choice in obese and normal-weight individuals. Brain Cogn. 2016, 110, 112–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sellitto, M.; Di Pellegrino, G. Errors as a means of reducing impulsive food choice. J. Vis. Exp. 2016, 2016, 27341281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sellitto, M.; Di Pellegrino, G. Errors affect hypothetical intertemporal food choice in women. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e108422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Angeletos, G.M.; Laibson, D.; Repetto, A.; Tobacman, J.; Weinberg, S. The hyperbolic consumption model: Calibration, simulation, and empirical evaluation. In Time and Decision: Economic and Psychological Perspectives on Intertemporal Choice; Russell Sage Foundation: New York, NY, USA, 2003; ISBN 9781610443661. [Google Scholar]
- Vanderveldt, A.; Oliveira, L.; Green, L. Delay discounting: Pigeon, rat, human—Does it matter? J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Learn. Cogn. 2016, 42, 141–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kaplan, B.A.; Reed, D.D.; McKerchar, T.L. Using a Visual Analogue Scale to Assess Delay, Social, and Probability Discounting of an Environmental Loss. Psychol. Rec. 2014, 64, 261–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hardisty, D.J.; Weber, E.U. Discounting Future Green: Money Versus the Environment. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 2009, 138, 329–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sargisson, R.J.; Schöner, B.V. Hyperbolic Discounting with Environmental Outcomes across Time, Space, and Probability. Psychol. Rec. 2020, 70, 515–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeeb, F.D.; Floresco, S.B.; Winstanley, C.A. Contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex to impulsive choice: Interactions with basal levels of impulsivity, dopamine signalling, and reward-related cues. Psychopharmacology 2010, 211, 87–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berlin, H.A.; Rolls, E.T.; Kischka, U. Impulsivity, time perception, emotion and reinforcement sensitivity in patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions. Brain 2004, 127, 1108–1126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Battaglia, S.; Garofalo, S.; Di Pellegrino, G.; Starita, F. Revaluing the Role of vmPFC in the Acquisition of Pavlovian Threat Conditioning in Humans. J. Neurosci. 2020, 40, 8491–8500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kable, J.W.; Glimcher, P.W. An “as soon as possible” effect in human intertemporal decision making: Behavioral evidence and neural mechanisms. J. Neurophysiol. 2010, 103, 2513–2531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kable, J.W.; Glimcher, P.W. The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice. Nat. Neurosci. 2007, 10, 1625–1633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, B.J.; Monterosso, J.R.; Wakslak, C.J.; Bechara, A.; Read, S.J. A meta-analytical review of brain activity associated with intertemporal decisions: Evidence for an anterior-posterior tangibility axis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2018, 86, 85–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Frost, R.; McNaughton, N. The neural basis of delay discounting: A review and preliminary model. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2017, 79, 48–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levy, D.J.; Glimcher, P.W. The root of all value: A neural common currency for choice. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2012, 22, 1027–1038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sellitto, M.; Ciaramelli, E.; Di Pellegrino, G. Myopic Discounting of Future Rewards after Medial Orbitofrontal Damage in Humans. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30, 16429–16436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bertossi, E.; Tesini, C.; Cappelli, A.; Ciaramelli, E. Ventromedial prefrontal damage causes a pervasive impairment of episodic memory and future thinking. Neuropsychologia 2016, 90, 12–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peters, J.; D’Esposito, M. Effects of Medial Orbitofrontal Cortex Lesions on Self-Control in Intertemporal Choice. Curr. Biol. 2016, 26, 2625–2628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chapman, G.B. Temporal discounting and utility for health and money. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 1996, 22, 771–791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahn, W.-Y.; Gu, H.; Shen, Y.; Haines, N.; Hahn, H.A.; Teater, J.E.; Myung, J.I.; Pitt, M.A. Rapid, precise, and reliable measurement of delay discounting using a Bayesian learning algorithm. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 12091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, C.L.; Hantula, D.A. Methodological considerations in the study of delay discounting in intertemporal choice: A comparison of tasks and modes. Behav. Res. Methods 2008, 40, 940–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hardisty, D.J.; Appelt, K.C.; Weber, E.U. Good or Bad, We Want it Now: Fixed-cost Present Bias for Gains and Losses Explains Magnitude Asymmetries in Intertemporal Choice. J. Behav. Decis. Mak. 2013, 26, 348–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rung, J.M.; Madden, G.J. Experimental reductions of delay discounting and impulsive choice: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 2018, 147, 1349–1381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Robles, E.; Vargas, P.A.; Bejarano, R. Within-subject differences in degree of delay discounting as a function of order of presentation of hypothetical cash rewards. Behav. Process. 2009, 81, 260–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hardisty, D.J.; Thompson, K.F.; Krantz, D.H.; Weber, E.U. How to measure time preferences: An experimental comparison of three methods. Judgm. Decis. Mak. 2013, 8, 1–15. [Google Scholar]
- Read, D.; Read, N. Time discounting over the lifespan. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 2004, 94, 22–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Green, L.; Myerson, J. Exponential versus Hyperbolic Discounting of Delayed Outcomes: Risk and Waiting Time. Am. Zool. 2019, 36, 496–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Myerson, J.; Green, L.; Warusawitharana, M. Area under the curve as a measure of discounting. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 2001, 76, 235–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Myerson, J.; Green, L.; Scott Hanson, J.; Holt, D.D.; Estle, S.J. Discounting delayed and probabilistic rewards: Processes and traits. J. Econ. Psychol. 2003, 24, 619–635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, M.W.; Bickel, W.K. An Algorithm for Identifying Nonsystematic Delay-Discounting Data. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2008, 16, 264–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hyndman, R.J.; Fan, Y. Sample Quantiles in Statistical Packages. Am. Stat. 1996, 50, 361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Becker, R.A.; Chambers, J.M.; Wilks, A.R. The New S Language. Biometrics 1989, 45, 699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mathôt, S.; Schreij, D.; Theeuwes, J. OpenSesame: An open-source, graphical experiment builder for the social sciences. Behav. Res. Methods 2012, 44, 314–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Green, L.; Fry, A.F.; Myerson, J. Discounting of delayed rewards: A Life-Span Comparison. Psychol. Sci. 1994, 5, 33–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Green, L.; Myerson, J.; Lichtman, D.; Rosen, S.; Fry, A. Temporal discounting in choice between delayed rewards: The role of age and income. Psychol. Aging 1996, 11, 79–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harrison, G.W.; Lau, M.I.; Williams, M.B. Estimating individual discount rates in Denmark: A field experiment. Am. Econ. Rev. 2002, 92, 1606–1617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mischel, W.; Shoda, Y.; Peake, P.K. The nature of adolescent competencies predicted by preschool delay of gratification. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1988, 54, 687–696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bickel, W.K.; Yi, R.; Landes, R.D.; Hill, P.F.; Baxter, C. Remember the future: Working memory training decreases delay discounting among stimulant addicts. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 69, 260–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Grippa, E.; Sellitto, M.; Scarpazza, C.; Mattioli, F.; Di Pellegrino, G. Multiple sclerosis reduces sensitivity to immediate reward during decision making. Behav. Neurosci. 2017, 131, 325–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moretto, G.; Sellitt, M.; Di Pellegrino, G. Investment and repayment in a trust game after ventromedial prefrontal damage. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2013, 7, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dombrovski, A.; Szanto, K.; Siegle, G.; Wallace, M.; Forman, S.; Sahakian, B.; Reynolds, C.; Clark, L. Lethal forethought: Discounting of future monetary rewards and attempted suicide in late-life Depression. Biol. Psychiatry 2010, 70, 138–144. [Google Scholar]
- Naglieri, J.A. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). In Understanding Psychological Assessment; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2001; pp. 235–257. [Google Scholar]
- Starita, F.; Ladavas, E.; Di Pellegrino, G. Reduced anticipation of negative emotional events in alexithymia. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 27664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Benassi, M.; Garofalo, S.; Ambrosini, F.; Sant’Angelo, R.P.; Raggini, R.; De Paoli, G.; Ravani, C.; Giovagnoli, S.; Orsoni, M.; Piraccini, G. Using Two-Step Cluster Analysis and Latent Class Cluster Analysis to Classify the Cognitive Heterogeneity of Cross-Diagnostic Psychiatric Inpatients. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shamosh, N.A.; Gray, J.R. Delay discounting and intelligence: A meta-analysis. Intelligence 2008, 36, 289–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moffitt, T.E.; Arseneault, L.; Belsky, D.; Dickson, N.; Hancox, R.J.; Harrington, H.L.; Houts, R.; Poulton, R.; Roberts, B.W.; Ross, S.; et al. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 2693–2698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gathergood, J. Self-control, financial literacy and consumer over-indebtedness. J. Econ. Psychol. 2012, 33, 590–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Duckworth, A.L.; Seligman, M.E.P. Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychol. Sci. 2005, 16, 939–944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Duckworth, A.L.; Taxer, J.L.; Eskreis-Winkler, L.; Galla, B.M.; Gross, J.J. Self-Control and Academic Achievement. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2019, 70, 373–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tangney, J.P.; Baumeister, R.F.; Boone, A.L. High Self-Control Predicts Good Adjustment, Less Pathology, Better Grades, and Interpersonal Success. J. Pers. 2004, 72, 271–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Finkel, E.J.; Campbell, W.K. Self-control and accommodation in close relationships: An interdependence analysis. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2001, 81, 263–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gibbons, F.X.; O’Hara, R.E.; Stock, M.L.; Gerrard, M.; Weng, C.Y.; Wills, T.A. The erosive effects of racism: Reduced self-control mediates the relation between perceived racial discrimination and substance use in African American adolescents. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2012, 102, 1089–1104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Boals, A.; VanDellen, M.R.; Banks, J.B. The relationship between self-control and health: The mediating effect of avoidant coping. Psychol. Health 2011, 26, 1049–1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Watts, T.W.; Duncan, G.J.; Quan, H. Revisiting the Marshmallow Test: A Conceptual Replication Investigating Links between Early Delay of Gratification and Later Outcomes. Psychol. Sci. 2018, 29, 1159–1177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bertossi, E.; Ciaramelli, E. Ventromedial prefrontal damage reduces mind-wandering and biases its temporal focus. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 2016, 11, 1783–1791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
Normative Sample (N = 357) | mOFC (N = 10) | nonFC (N = 13) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | N (m/f) | 187/170 | 7/3 | 5/8 |
Age | N (21–39/40–29/60–92 yrs) | 91/140/126 | 0/3/7 | 1/5/7 |
mean (sd) | 52.18 (16.71) | 59.8 (9.15) | 58.8 (12.77) | |
median (min–max) | 54 (21–92) | 62 (41–70) | 60 (31–76) | |
Education | N (3–8/9–13/14–23 yrs) | 102/128/127 | 4/5/1 | 5/6/2 |
mean (sd) | 12.69 (4.36) | 10.8 (5.65) | 11.38 (3.99) | |
median (min–max) | 13 (3–23) | 12 (4–23) | 13 (5–19) |
Gaussian | Cauchy | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
BIC | AIC | BIC | AIC | |
k | 1610.75 | 1602.991 | 1646.329 | 1638.574 |
AUC | 32.76 * | 25.01 * | 167.86 | 160.11 |
Hyperbolic k | AUC | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F (df) | p | Part. H2 | F (df) | p | Part. H2 | |
Sex | 8.86 (1) | 0.003 ** | 0.02 | 6.57 (1) | 0.010 * | 0.02 |
Age | 0.05 (1) | 0.819 | 1.48e-04 | 0.13 (1) | 0.716 | 3.76e-04 |
Education | 11.64 (1) | 0.0007 *** | 0.03 | 7.65 (1) | 0.006 ** | 0.02 |
Hyperbolic k | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | F | M | ||||
Education (Years) | 3–8 | 9–13 | 14–23 | 3–8 | 9–13 | 14–23 |
Percentile | ||||||
5 | −6.35 | −7.57 | −7.51 | −6.51 | −6.55 | −7.59 |
10 | −5.06 | −6.62 | −6.42 | −6.03 | −6.16 | −7.32 |
25 | −4.21 | −4.80 | −5.55 | −5.08 | −5.12 | −6.00 |
50 | −2.70 | −3.73 | −4.35 | −3.94 | −4.10 | −4.13 |
75 | −0.67 | −2.19 | −2.94 | −3.20 | −3.17 | −3.10 |
85 | 0.35 | −1.03 | −2.38 | −2.73 | −2.20 | −2.84 |
90 | 0.97 | −0.18 | −2.08 | −1.75 | −1.42 | −2.37 |
95 | 2.38 | 2.73 | −1.00 | 0.69 | −0.42 | −1.91 |
AUC | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | F | M | ||||
Education (Years) | 3–8 | 9–13 | 14–23 | 3–8 | 9–13 | 14–23 |
Percentile | ||||||
5 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.08 |
10 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.18 | 0.14 | 0.16 |
25 | 0.11 | 0.20 | 0.29 | 0.26 | 0.30 | 0.25 |
50 | 0.26 | 0.29 | 0.40 | 0.37 | 0.41 | 0.41 |
75 | 0.38 | 0.52 | 0.66 | 0.59 | 0.57 | 0.70 |
85 | 0.46 | 0.72 | 0.77 | 0.66 | 0.69 | 0.85 |
90 | 0.66 | 0.82 | 0.79 | 0.71 | 0.74 | 0.89 |
95 | 0.97 | 0.87 | 0.89 | 0.79 | 0.79 | 0.91 |
5 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.08 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Garofalo, S.; Degni, L.A.E.; Sellitto, M.; Braghittoni, D.; Starita, F.; Giovagnoli, S.; di Pellegrino, G.; Benassi, M. Unifying Evidence on Delay Discounting: Open Task, Analysis Tutorial, and Normative Data from an Italian Sample. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 2049. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042049
Garofalo S, Degni LAE, Sellitto M, Braghittoni D, Starita F, Giovagnoli S, di Pellegrino G, Benassi M. Unifying Evidence on Delay Discounting: Open Task, Analysis Tutorial, and Normative Data from an Italian Sample. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(4):2049. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042049
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarofalo, Sara, Luigi A. E. Degni, Manuela Sellitto, Davide Braghittoni, Francesca Starita, Sara Giovagnoli, Giuseppe di Pellegrino, and Mariagrazia Benassi. 2022. "Unifying Evidence on Delay Discounting: Open Task, Analysis Tutorial, and Normative Data from an Italian Sample" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 4: 2049. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042049