Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Classrooms at the University of the Basque Country through a User-Informed Natural Ventilation Demonstrator
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Ventilation in Educational Buildings in Europe, Spain and the Basque Country
- 81% of the studied samples ventilated just by means of opening and closing windows.
- Out of the buildings with mechanical ventilation systems, only 47% were equipped with an air quality control system that used CO2 concentration as a metric.
- 88% of the classrooms performed some ventilation action during breaks between lessons, while 70% kept the windows opened during classes also.
- Outdoor fresh air supply should be increased.
- Occupancy should be limited in areas where ventilation cannot be substantially increased.
- Air supply filtration with high-efficiency (HEPA) filters should be used.
- Substantially decrease, eliminate or dilute air recirculation in mechanical ventilation systems.
1.2. CO2 Concentration and SARS-CoV-2 Infection Prevention Protocols
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the Case Study
2.2. Monitoring and Real-Time Information System
- Temperature, T: 0 to 55 ± 0.5 °C, with a resolution of 0.1 °C
- Relative Humidity, R.H.: 1 to 95 ± 5% at 50% relative humidity
- CO2 concentration, CO2: 0 to 9999 ppm ± (50 ppm + 5% of reading)
2.2.1. Framework for Data Analysis
2.2.2. Phases for Analysis
2.3. Model for Retrospective Analysis of SARS-CoV-2
3. Results
3.1. Results for Phases I and II
3.1.1. Phase I
3.1.2. Phase II
3.1.3. Phase III
3.2. Comparative Analysis
3.2.1. Classrooms A 1.1 and A 2.1
- In classroom A 1.1, from 82.8% of the time with CO2 levels below 900 ppm in Phase I to 80.6% in Phase II, reaching 98.3% in Phase II-b (spring).
- In classroom A 2.1, from 89.4% of the time with CO2 levels below 900 ppm in Phase I to 83.3% in Phase II-a, reaching 100% in Phase II-b (spring).
- In classroom A 1.1, from less than 1% of the time with thermal comfort within winter limits in Phase I to 21.7% in Phase II-a, reaching 38.3% in Phase II-b (spring).
- In classroom 2.1, from around 7% of the time with a thermal comfort within winter ranges in Phase I to 27.8% in Phase II-a, but only 3.3% in Phase II-b (spring).
- Classroom A 1.1 rose from 18.3% of the time with thermal comfort within the winter conditions in Phase I to 78.9% in Phase II-a and more than 91% in Phase II-b (spring).
- In classroom A 2.1, from 42.8% of the time with thermal comfort within winter ranges in Phase I to 88.3% in Phase II-a, dropping to 40% in Phase II-b (spring).
3.2.2. Administration Office
- Data show an improvement from 87.6% of the time with CO2 levels below 900 ppm in Phase I to 100% in Phase II, dropping slightly to 98.1% in Phase III (summer).
- There was an evolution from 16.3% of the time within RITE acceptable ranges in comfort for winter in Phase I to 31% in Phase II; however, in Phase III, with different limits for comfort, values within the ranges (summer) were not obtained due to an excess of humidity and temperature.
- A rise from 44.2% of the time within INSST thermal comfort ranges in Phase I to 76.7% in Phase II-a, dropping to 68.6% in Phase III due to the aforementioned reasons.
3.3. Retrospective Analysis of SARS-CoV-2
- For a 0.72 q/h emission rate, the accumulated P during at the end of the week was 0.0645 or 6.45%.
- For a quanta emission rate of 1 q/h, P was 0.0896 or around 9%
- For q = 1.70 q/h, the total-week secondary spread risk reached 15.23%
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Use | Surface | Volume | Max. Occ.1 | 50% Occ. 1 | OWA 2 | OWA/V 3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A 1.1 | classroom | 156.75 m2 | 603.50 m3 | 65 | 32 | 6.20 m2 | 0.0102 |
A 2.1 | classroom | 114.75 m2 | 356.90 m3 | 48 | 24 | 8.20 m2 | 0.0229 |
Admin. | office | 53.20 m2 | 164.90 m3 | 5 | - | 8.82 m2 | 0.0535 |
EN 16798 | RITE | This Study | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Category | qv (l/s.p) | [CO2] Above Baseline | qv (l/s.p) | [CO2] Above Baseline | Selected Limit 1 | |
Interval | Default | |||||
Cat. I or IDA 1 | 20.0 | 550 | 20.0 | <400 | 350 | 750 |
Cat. II or IDA 2 | 14.0 | 800 | 12.5 | 400–600 | 500 | 900 |
Category III or IDA 3 | 8.0 | 1350 | 8.0 | 600–1000 | 800 | 1200 |
Category IV or IDA 4 | - | - | - | >1000 | 1200 | 1600 |
Analysis Periods | |||||||
A 1.1 | A 2.1 | Administration Office | |||||
Start | End | Start | End | Start | End | ||
Phase I | 3 weeks | 30 November 2020 | 27 December 2020 | 30 November 2020 | 27 December 2020 | 4 January 2021 | 31 January 2021 |
Phase II | (a) 3 weeks | 3 January 2021 | 14 February 2021 | 3 January 2021 | 14 February 2021 | 1 February 2021 | 14 February 2021 |
(b) 1 week | 26 April 2021 | 4 May 2021 | 26 April 2021 | 4 May 2021 | - | - | |
Phase III | 4 weeks | - | - | - | - | 4 July 2022 | 31 July 2022 |
Analysis type | |||||||
A 1.1 | A 2.1 | Administration office | |||||
CO2 Concentration | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||||
Winter Comfort | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||||
Spring Comfort | Yes | Yes | No | ||||
Summer Comfort | No | No | Yes | ||||
Infection Risk | No | No | Yes |
Classroom A 1.1 | Classroom A 2.1 | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phase I | Phase II (a) | Phase II (b) | Phase I | Phase II (a) | Phase II (b) | |||||||
Total analysed hours 1 | 180 h | 180 h | 60 h | 180 h | 180 h | 60 h | ||||||
[CO2] | Minimum CO2 Concentration | 386 ppm | 403 ppm | • | 402 ppm | • | 396 ppm | 417 ppm | • | 406 ppm | • | |
Maximum CO2 Concentration | 2738 ppm | 1580 ppm | • | 1339 ppm | • | 2181 ppm | 1457 ppm | • | 832 ppm | • | ||
Average CO2 Concentration | 614 ppm | 674 ppm | • | 468 ppm | • | 642 ppm | 696 ppm | • | 581 ppm | • | ||
RITE Air Quality | IDA 1 | Number of hours | 137 h | 121 h | 59 h | 131 h | 109 h | 53 h | ||||
% hours | 76.1% | 67.2% | • | 98.3% | • | 72.8% | 60.6% | • | 88.3% | • | ||
IDA 2 | Number of hours | 13 h | 24 h | 0 h | 30 h | 41 h | 7 h | |||||
% hours | 7.2% | 13.3% | • | 0.0% | • | 16.7% | 22.7% | • | 11.7% | • | ||
IDA 3 | Number of hours | 20 h | 26 h | 1 h | 16 h | 27 h | 0 h | |||||
% hours | 11.1% | 14.4% | • | 1.7% | • | 26.7% | 15.0% | • | 0.0% | • | ||
IDA 4 | Number of hours | 7 h | 9 h | 1 h | 1 h | 4 h | 0 h | |||||
% hours | 3.9% | 5.0% | • | 1.7% | • | 0.6% | 2.2% | • | 0.0% | • | ||
Temperature | Minimum T. | 15.6 °C | 17.6 °C | • | 19.3 °C | • | 16.8 °C | 19.6 °C | • | 22.0 °C | • | |
Maximum T. | 22.5 °C | 26.1 °C | • | 25.5 °C | • | 21.8 °C | 25.1 °C | • | 25.6 °C | • | ||
Relative Humidity | Minimum R.H. | 30% | 33% | • | 40% | • | 32% | 30% | • | 37% | • | |
Maximum R.H. | 74% | 61% | • | 56% | • | 74% | 60% | • | 55% | • | ||
Thermal Comfort | RITE 2 | Number of hours | 1 h | 39 h | 23 h | 12 h | 50 h | 2 h | ||||
% hours | 0.5% | 21.7% | • | 38.3% | • | 6.7% | 27.8% | • | 3.3% | • | ||
INSST 2 | Number of hours | 33 h | 142 h | 55 h | 77 h | 159 h | 24 h | |||||
% hours | 18.3% | 78.9% | • | 91.7% | • | 42.8% | 88.3% | • | 40.0% | • | ||
IAQ Compliance3 | Acceptable | Number of hours | 149 h | 145 h | 59 h | 161 h | 150 h | 60 h | ||||
% hours | 82.8% | 80.6% | • | 98.3% | • | 89.4% | 83.3% | • | 100.0% | • | ||
Unacceptable | Number of hours | 31 h | 35 h | 1 h | 19 h | 30 h | 0 h | |||||
% hours | 17.2% | 19.4% | • | 1.7% | • | 10.6% | 16.7% | • | 0.0% | • | ||
IEQ Compliance4 | Acceptable | Number of hours | 0 h | 35 h | 23 h | 9 h | 45 h | 2 h | ||||
% hours | 0.0% | 19.4% | • | 38.3 % | • | 5.0% | 25.0% | • | 3.3% | • | ||
Unacceptable | Number of hours | 180 h | 145 h | 37 h | 171 h | 135 h | 58 h | |||||
% hours | 100% | 80.6% | • | 61.7% | • | 95.0% | 75.0% | • | 96.7% | • |
Administration | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phase I | Phase II | Phase III | |||||
Total analysed hours 1 | 129 h | 129 h | 105 h | ||||
[CO2] | Minimum CO2 Concentration | 397 ppm | 411 ppm | • | 422 ppm | • | |
Maximum CO2 Concentration | 1126 ppm | 869 ppm | • | 1141 ppm | • | ||
Average CO2 Concentration | 581 ppm | 586 ppm | • | 536 ppm | • | ||
RITE Air Quality | IDA 1 | Number of hours | 93 h | 115 h | 100 h | ||
% hours | 72.1% | 89.1% | • | 95.2% | • | ||
IDA 2 | Number of hours | 20 h | 14 h | 3 h | |||
% hours | 15.5% | 10.9% | • | 2.9% | • | ||
IDA 3 | Number of hours | 16 h | 0 h | 3 h | |||
% hours | 12.4% | 0.0% | • | 2.9% | • | ||
IDA 4 | Number of hours | 0 h | 0 h | 0 h | |||
% hours | 0.0% | 0.0% | • | 0.0% | • | ||
Temperature | Minimum T. | 10.9 °C | 10.6 °C | • | 21.5 °C | • | |
Maximum T. | 22.9 °C | 23.6 °C | • | 26.3 °C | • | ||
Relative Humidity | Minimum R.H. | 31% | 36% | • | 46% | • | |
Maximum R.H. | 57% | 76% | • | 76% | • | ||
Thermal Comfort | RITE 2 | Number of hours | 21 h | 40 h | 0 h | ||
% hours | 16.3% | 31.0% | • | 0.0% | • | ||
INSST 2 | Number of hours | 57 h | 99 h | 72 h | |||
% hours | 44.2% | 76.7% | • | 68.6% | • | ||
IAQ Compliance3 | Acceptable | Number of hours | 113 h | 129 h | 103 h | ||
% hours | 87.6% | 100.0% | • | 98.1% | • | ||
Unacceptable | Number of hours | 16 h | 0 h | 2 h | • | ||
% hours | 12.4% | 0.0% | • | 1.9% | |||
IEQ Compliance4 | Acceptable | Number of hours | 15 h | 53 h | 0 h | ||
% hours | 11.6% | 41.1% | • | 0.0 % | • | ||
Unacceptable | Number of hours | 114 h | 76 h | 105 h | |||
% hours | 88.4% | 59.9% | • | 100.0% | • |
CO2 Concentration | f | f (%) | |
---|---|---|---|
Recorded minimum | 386 ppm | 0.0000 | 0.00% |
Assumed outdoor baseline | 400 ppm | 0.0000 | 0.00% |
600 ppm | 0.0053 | 0.53% | |
IDA 1 limit | 750 ppm | 0.0079 | 0.79% |
800 ppm | 0.0092 | 0.92% | |
IDA 2 limit | 900 ppm | 0.0105 | 1.05% |
1000 ppm | 0.0132 | 1.32% | |
IDA 3 limit | 1200 ppm | 0.0158 | 1.58% |
IDA 3 limit | 1600 ppm | 0.0211 | 2.11% |
2000 ppm | 0.0289 | 2.89% | |
Recorded maximum | 2738 ppm | 0.0615 | 6.15% |
Title 2 | P for 0.72 q/h | P for 1.00 q/h | P for 1.70 q/h | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phase I | 4–10 January | 2021 | 0.0239 | +0.0092 −0.0067 | 0.0333 | +0.0126 −0.0095 | 0.0565 | +0.0215 −0.0160 |
11–17 January | 2021 | 0.0645 | +0.0146 −0.0145 | 0.0896 | +0.0203 −0.0202 | 0.1523 | +0.0345 −0.0343 | |
18–24 January | 2021 | 0.0310 | +0.0128 −0.0102 | 0.0430 | +0.0178 −0.0141 | 0.0732 | +0.0301 −0.0241 | |
Phase II | 25–31 January | 2021 | 0.0294 | +0.0129 −0.0126 | 0.0409 | +0.0178 −0.0176 | 0.0695 | +0.0303 −0.0299 |
1–7 February | 2021 | 0.0272 | +0.0128 −0.0122 | 0.0378 | +0.0177 −0.0170 | 0.0643 | +0.0301 −0.0289 | |
8–14 February | 2021 | 0.0349 | +0.0131 −0.0128 | 0.0484 | +0.0183 −0.0177 | 0.0823 | +0.0310 −0.0301 | |
Phase III | 4–10 July | 2022 | 0.0350 | +0.0131 −0.0131 | 0.0486 | +0.0183 −0.0182 | 0.0826 | +0.0310 −0.0310 |
11–17 July | 2022 | 0.0201 | +0.0125 −0.0116 | 0.0280 | +0.0172 −0.0162 | 0.1523 | +0.0293 −0.0272 | |
18–24 July | 2022 | 0.0058 | +0.0117 −0.0053 | 0.0081 | +0.0162 −0.0074 | 0.0137 | +0.0276 −0.0126 | |
25–31 July | 2022 | 0.0088 | +0.0115 −0.0069 | 0.0122 | +0.0160 −0.0095 | 0.0208 | +0.0271 −0.0162 |
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Rodríguez-Vidal, I.; Martín-Garín, A.; González-Quintial, F.; Rico-Martínez, J.M.; Hernández-Minguillón, R.J.; Otaegi, J. Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Classrooms at the University of the Basque Country through a User-Informed Natural Ventilation Demonstrator. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 14560. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114560
Rodríguez-Vidal I, Martín-Garín A, González-Quintial F, Rico-Martínez JM, Hernández-Minguillón RJ, Otaegi J. Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Classrooms at the University of the Basque Country through a User-Informed Natural Ventilation Demonstrator. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(21):14560. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114560
Chicago/Turabian StyleRodríguez-Vidal, Iñigo, Alexander Martín-Garín, Francisco González-Quintial, José Miguel Rico-Martínez, Rufino J. Hernández-Minguillón, and Jorge Otaegi. 2022. "Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Classrooms at the University of the Basque Country through a User-Informed Natural Ventilation Demonstrator" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 21: 14560. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114560