Individual Characteristics and Pain Sensitivity during Pregnancy—A Cross-Sectional Study in Pregnant and Non-Pregnant Women
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Pain Measurement
2.3. Psychological Traits
2.4. Physical Activity
2.5. Ethics Statement
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Soma-Pillay, P.; Catherine, N.P.; Tolppanen, H.; Mebazaa, A. Physiological changes in pregnancy. Cardiovasc. J. Afr. 2016, 27, 89–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kazma, J.M.; van den Anker, J.; Allegaert, K.; Dallmann, A.; Ahmadzia, H.K. Anatomical and physiological alterations of pregnancy. J. Pharmacokinet. Pharmacodyn. 2020, 47, 271–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parrettini, S.; Caroli, A.; Torlone, E. Nutrition and Metabolic Adaptations in Physiological and Complicated Pregnancy: Focus on Obesity and Gestational Diabetes. Front. Endocrinol. 2020, 11, 611929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Uvnäs-Moberg, K.; Ekström-Bergström, A.; Berg, M.; Buckley, S.; Pajalic, Z.; Hadjigeorgiou, E.; Kotłowska, A.; Lengler, L.; Kielbratowska, B.; Leon-Larios, F.; et al. Maternal plasma levels of oxytocin during physiological childbirth—A systematic review with implications for uterine contractions and central actions of oxytocin. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2019, 19, 285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Szczepanska-Sadowska, E.; Cudnoch-Jedrzejewska, A.; Wsol, A. The role of oxytocin and vasopressin in the pathophysiology of heart failure in pregnancy and in fetal and neonatal life. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 2020, 318, H639–H651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Romano, A.; Tempesta, B.; Micioni Di Bonaventura, M.V.; Gaetani, S. From autism to eating disorders and more: The role of oxytocin in neuropsychiatric disorders. Front. Neurosci. 2016, 12, 497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Enkin, M.M. A Guide to Effective Care in Pregnancy and Childbirth. In Keirse and I Chalmers; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Marcus, S.M. Depression during pregnancy: Rates, risks and consequences—Motherisk Update 2008. Can. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2009, 16, e15–e22. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Nilsson, C.; Hessman, E.; Sjöblom, H.; Dencker, A.; Jangsten, E.; Mollberg, M.; Patel, H.; Sparud-Lundin, C.; Wigert, H.; Begley, C. Definitions, measurements and prevalence of fear of childbirth: A systematic review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2018, 18, 28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Saisto, T.; Halmesmaki, E. Fear of childbirth: A neglected dilemma. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 2003, 82, 201–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Handelzalts, J.E.; Becker, G.; Ahren, M.P.; Lurie, S.; Raz, N.; Tamir, Z.; Sadan, O. Personality, fear of childbirth and birth outcomes in nulliparous women. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 2015, 291, 1055–1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Handelzalts, J.E.; Krissi, H.; Levy, S.; Freund, Y.; Carmiel, N.; Ashwal, E.; Peled, Y. Personality, preterm labor contractions, and psychological consequences. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 2016, 293, 575–582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ryding, E.L.; Persson, A.; Onell, C.; Kvist, L. An evaluation of midwives’ counseling of pregnant women in fear of childbirth. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 2003, 82, 10–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Erdemoğlu, Ç.; Altıparmak, S.; Özşahin, Z. The effect of personality traits of pregnants and their ways of coping with stress on the fear of childbirth. J. Turk. Fam. Physician 2019, 10, 130–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asselmann, E.; Kunas, S.L.; Wittchen, H.U.; Martini, J. Maternal personality, social support, and changes in depressive, anxiety, and stress symptoms during pregnancy and after delivery: A prospective-longitudinal study. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0237609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ding, W.P.; Lu, J.M.; Zhou, Y.; Wei, W.Z.; Zhou, Z.H.; Chen, M. Knowledge, attitudes, practices, and influencing factors of anxiety among pregnant women in Wuhan during the outbreak of COVID-19: A cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2021, 21, 80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sut, H.K.; Kucukkaya, B. Anxiety, depression, and related factors in pregnant women during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey: A web-based cross-sectional study. Perspect. Psychiatr. Care 2021, 57, 860–868. [Google Scholar]
- Mappa, I.; Distefano, F.A.; Rizzo, G. Effects of coronavirus 19 pandemic on maternal anxiety during pregnancy: A prospectic observational study. J. Perinat. Med. 2020, 48, 545–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verweij, E.J.; M’Hamdi, H.I.; Steegers, E.A.P.; Reiss, I.K.M.; Schoenmakers, S. Collateral damage of the COVID-19 pandemic: A Dutch perinatal perspective. Bmj Br. Med. J. 2020, 369, m2326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Saccone, G.; Florio, A.; Aiello, F.; Venturella, R.; De Angelis, M.C.; Locci, M.; Bifulco, G.; Zullo, F.; Sardo, A.D.S. Psychological impact of coronavirus disease 2019 in pregnant women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2020, 223, 293–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davenport, M.H.; Meyer, S.; Meah, V.L.; Strynadka, M.C.; Khurana, R. Moms Are Not OK: COVID-19 and Maternal Mental Health. Front. Glob. Women’s Health 2020, 1, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carr, A. Positive Psychology. Learning about Happiness and Human Strength. [In Polish] Psychologia Pozytywna. Nauka o Szczęściu i Ludzkich Siłach, 1st ed.; Zyski S-ka: Poznań, Poland, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Härtl, K.; Engel, J.; Herschbach, P.; Reinecker, H.; Sommer, H.; Friese, K. Personality traits and psychosocial stress: Quality of life over 2 years following breast cancer diagnosis and psychological impact factors. Psycho-Oncology 2010, 19, 160–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kostka, T.; Jachimowicz, V. Relationship of quality of life to dispositional optimism, health locus of control and self-efficacy in older subjects living in different environments. Qual. Life Res. 2010, 19, 351–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yadollahi, P.; Khalaginia, Z.; Vedadhir, A.; Ariashekouh, A.; Taghizadeh, Z.; Khormaei, F. The study of predicting role of personality traits in the perception of labor pain. Iran. J. Nurs. Midwifery Res. 2014, 19, S97–S102. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Oviedo-Caro, M.A.; Bueno-Antequera, J.; Munguia-Izquierdo, D. The associations of pregnancy-related symptoms with health-related quality of life at midpregnancy: The PregnActive project. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med. 2021, 21, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chang, S.R.; Chen, K.H.; Lin, M.I.; Lin, H.H.; Huang, L.H.; Lin, W.A. A repeated measures study of changes in health-related quality of life during pregnancy and the relationship with obstetric factors. J. Adv. Nurs. 2014, 70, 2245–2256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lagadec, N.; Steinecker, M.; Kapassi, A.; Magnier, A.M.; Chastang, J.; Robert, S.; Gaouaou, N.; Ibanez, G. Factors influencing the quality of life of pregnant women: A systematic review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2018, 18, 455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hoeger Bement, M.K.; Sluka, K.A. Exercise-Induced Hypoalgesia: An Evidence-Based Review; Wolters Kluwer: Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Sluka, K.A.; Frey-Prawo, L.; Bement, M.H. Exercise-induced pain and analgesia? Underlying mechanisms and clinical translation. Pain 2018, 159, S91–S97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Scheier, M.F.; Carver, C.S.; Bridges, M.S. Life Orientation Test—LOTR. [in Polish] Test Orientacji Życiowej—LOT–R. In Juczyński, Z., Ed., Measurement Tools in Health Promotion and Psychology. Psychological Test Laboratory of the Polish Psychological Assosiation [In Polish] Narzędzia Pomiaru w Promocji i Psychologi Zdrowia. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego. Przegląd Psychologiczny 1994, 42, 43–56. [Google Scholar]
- Ahorsu, D.K.; Lin, C.Y.; Imani, V.; Saffari, M.; Griffiths, M.D.; Pakpour, A.H. The Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Development and initial validation. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2020, 20, 1537–1545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pisula, E.; Nowakowska, I. Fear of COVID-19 Scale FCV-19S (Ahorsu et al., 2020)—Polish translation. OSF 2020, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gosling, S.D.; Rentfrow, P.J.; Swann, W.B. A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains. J. Res. Personal. 2003, 37, 504–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sorokowska, A.; Słowińska, A.; Zbieg, A.; Sorokowski, P. Polska adaptacja testu Ten ItemPersonality Inventory (TIPI)—TIPI-PL—Wersja standardowa i internetowa. WrocLab 2014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IPAQ. Guidelines for Data Processing and Analysis of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)-Short and Long Forms. Int. Phys. Act. Quest. Published online 2005. Available online: https://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/10030318551/ (accessed on 2 April 2022).
- Craig, C.L.; Marshall, A.L.; Sjöström, M.; Bauman, A.E.; Booth, M.L.; Ainsworth, B.E.; Pratt, M.; Ekelund, U.L.; Yngve, A.; Sallis, J.F.; et al. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 2003, 35, 1381–1395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cheng, H.L. A Simple, Easy-to-Use Spreadsheet for Automatic Scoring of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) Short Form. 2016. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310953872_A_simple_easy-to-use_spreadsheet_for_automatic_scoring_of_the_International_Physical_Activity_Questionnaire_IPAQ_Short_Form?channel=doi&linkId=583bbee208ae3a74b4a06f27&showFulltext=true (accessed on 1 March 2022).
- The Jamovi Project 2021. Jamovi, (Version 2.2) [Computer Software]; Available online: https://www.jamovi.org (accessed on 1 May 2021).
- Faul, F.; Erdfelder, E.; Lang, A.G.; Buchner, A. G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav. Res. Methods 2007, 39, 175–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pawlak, M.; Jazdzewska, A.; Leznicka, K. Can physical activity modulate pain perception during ontogenesis? Balt. J. Health Phys. 2019, 11, 90–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goolkasian, P.; Rimer, B.A. Pain reactions in pregnant women. Pain 1984, 20, 87–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cogan, R.; Spinnato, J.A. Pain and discomfort thresholds in late pregnancy. Pain 1896, 27, 63–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sengupta, P.; Nielsen, M. The effect of labour and epidural analgesia on pain threshold. Anaesthesia 1984, 39, 982–986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Staikou, C.; Siafaka, I.; Petropoulos, G.; Katafigioti, A.; Fassoulaki, A. Responses to mechanical and electrical stimuli are not attenuated by late pregnancy. Acta Anaesthesiol. Belg. 2006, 57, 277–281. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Gintzler, A.R. Endorphin mediated increases in pain threshold during pregnancy. Science 1980, 210, 193–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carvalho, B.; Angst, M.S.; Fuller, A.J.; Lin, E.; Mathusamy, A.D.; Riley, E.T. Experimental heat pain for detecting pregnancy-induced analgesia in humans. Anesth. Analg. 2006, 103, 1283–1287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Draisci, G.; Catarci, S.; Vollono, C.; Zanfini, B.A.; Pazzaglia, C.; Cadeddu, C.; Virdis, D.; Valeriani, M. Pregnancy-induced analgesia: A combined psychophysical and neurophysiological study. Eur. J. Pain. 2012, 16, 1389–1397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ohel, I.; Walfisch, A.; Shitenberg, D.; Sheiner, E.; Hallak, M. A rise in pain threshold during labor: A prospective clinical trial. Pain 2007, 132, S104–S108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frölich, M.A.; Banks, C.; Warren, W.; Robbins, M.; Ness, T. The Association Between Progesterone, Estradiol, and Oxytocin and Heat Pain Measures in Pregnancy: An Observational Cohort Study. Anesth. Analg. 2016, 123, 396–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rash, J.A.; Aguirre-Camacho, A.; Campbell, T.S. Oxytocin and Pain A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Findings. Clin. J. Pain 2014, 30, 453–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scheier, M.F. Carver, Dispositional optimism and physical health: A long look back, a quick look forward. Am. Psychol. 2018, 73, 1082–1094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scheier, M.F.; Carver, C.S.; Bridges, M.W. Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. J. PersSoc. Psychol. 1994, 67, 1063–1078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conrad, M.; Stricker, S. Personality and labor: A retrospective study of the relationship between personality traits and birthing experiences. J. Reprod. Infant Psychol. 2018, 36, 67–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Asselmann, E.; Garthus-Niegel, S.; Martini, J. Personality impacts fear of childbirth and subjective birth experiences: A prospective-longitudinal study. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0258696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dymecka, J.; Gerymski, R.; Iszczuk, A.; Bidzan, M. Fear of Coronavirus, Stress and Fear of Childbirth in Polish Pregnant Women during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 13111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lumley, M.A.; Cohen, J.L.; Borszcz, G.S.; Cano, A.; Radcliffe, A.M.; Porter, L.S.; Schubiner, H.; Keefe, F.J. Pain and Emotion: A Biopsychosocial Review of Recent Research. J. Clin. Psychol. 2011, 67, 942–968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- McCrae, R.R.; Costa, P.T. A contemplated revision of the NEO Five-Factor Inventory. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2004, 36, 587–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashton, M.C.; Lee, K. The HEXACO Model of Personality Structure and the Importance of the H Factor. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 2008, 2, 1952–1962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Szumilewicz, A.; Santos-Rocha, R.; Worska, A.; Piernicka, M.; Yu, H.; Pajaujiene, S.; Shojaeian, N.-A.; Caro, M.A.O. How to HIIT while pregnant? The protocols characteristics and effects of high intensity interval training implemented during pregnancy—A systematic review. Balt. J. Phys. Act. Health 2022, 14, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variables | Non-Pregnant Women n = 59 | Pregnant Women n = 66 | t | df | p | Cohen’s d | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M ± SD | M ± SD | |||||||
PPT dominant hand | 89.63 | ±64.70 | 97.58 | ±57.96 | −0.71 | 113.54 | 0.478 | −0.129 |
PPT non-dominant hand | 117.25 | ±93.27 | 109.72 | ±66.45 | 0.51 | 99.40 | 0.612 | 0.093 |
PTOL dominant hand | 1159.23 | ±326.30 | 713.47 | ±259.36 | 8.30 | 106.47 | <0.001 | 1.512 |
PTOL non-dominant hand | 1083.88 | ±358.64 | 667.62 | ±237.97 | 7.46 | 94.87 | <0.001 | 1.368 |
VAS dominant hand | 5.97 | ±1.66 | 5.99 | ±1.68 | −0.07 | 118.80 | 0.947 | −0.012 |
VAS nondominant hand | 6.37 | ±1.69 | 6.76 | ±1.53 | −1.33 | 114.19 | 0.186 | −0.242 |
Variables | Non-Pregnant women n = 55 | Pregnant Women n = 66 | t | df | p | Cohen’s d | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M ± SD | M ± SD | |||||||
Optimism | 15.53 | ±3.58 | 17.03 | ±3.85 | −2.22 | 117.53 | 0.028 | −0.405 |
Extraversion | 11.98 | ±2.17 | 11.85 | ±2.12 | 0.34 | 114.06 | 0.735 | 0.062 |
Agreeableness | 11.75 | ±1.94 | 11.32 | ±1.88 | 1.22 | 113.88 | 0.223 | 0.224 |
Conscientiousness | 10.60 | ±2.42 | 11.68 | ±2.30 | −2.51 | 112.77 | 0.014 | −0.459 |
Emotional stability | 8.75 | ±3.04 | 9.42 | ±3.19 | −1.20 | 116.81 | 0.235 | −0.218 |
Openness to experience | 10.40 | ±1.80 | 10.30 | ±1.85 | 0.29 | 116.07 | 0.771 | 0.053 |
Fear of COVID-19 | 10.69 | ±3.30 | 13.09 | ±4.52 | −3.37 | 117.08 | 0.001 | −0.607 |
Psychological Variables | Pain Threshold | Pain Tolerance | Subjective Pain Assessment | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DH | NDH | DH | NDH | DH | NDH | |||||||
ρ | p | ρ | p | ρ | p | ρ | p | ρ | p | ρ | p | |
Total sample (n = 121) | ||||||||||||
Optimism | −0.25 | 0.005 | −0.25 | 0.006 | −0.17 | 0.058 | −0.13 | 0.144 | 0.06 | 0.543 | 0.07 | 0.449 |
Extraversion | −0.13 | 0.160 | −0.18 | 0.044 | −0.03 | 0.731 | 0.00 | 0.970 | 0.12 | 0.189 | 0.20 | 0.030 |
Agreeableness | −0.13 | 0.157 | 0.06 | 0.551 | 0.03 | 0.775 | 0.10 | 0.257 | −0.16 | 0.085 | −0.14 | 0.134 |
Conscientiousness | −0.07 | 0.474 | −0.26 | 0.004 | −0.17 | 0.066 | −0.21 | 0.019 | −0.01 | 0.958 | 0.09 | 0.329 |
Emotional Stability | −0.10 | 0.264 | −0.13 | 0.172 | −0.14 | 0.125 | −0.10 | 0.274 | 0.00 | 0.962 | 0.08 | 0.386 |
Openness to experience | −0.06 | 0.488 | −0.13 | 0.149 | 0.09 | 0.322 | 0.06 | 0.489 | −0.09 | 0.342 | 0.01 | 0.882 |
Fear of COVID-19 | −0.03 | 0.717 | 0.02 | 0.860 | −0.21 | 0.019 | −0.15 | 0.113 | 0.12 | 0.196 | −0.08 | 0.381 |
Non-pregnant women (n = 55) | ||||||||||||
Optimism | −0.14 | 0.326 | −0.10 | 0.480 | −0.01 | 0.955 | −0.02 | 0.911 | −0.03 | 0.844 | 0.02 | 0.860 |
Extraversion | −0.17 | 0.206 | −0.28 | 0.042 | 0.02 | 0.896 | −0.11 | 0.436 | 0.01 | 0.940 | 0.12 | 0.399 |
Agreeableness | −0.21 | 0.128 | 0.07 | 0.633 | 0.10 | 0.479 | 0.30 | 0.027 | −0.16 | 0.239 | −0.15 | 0.279 |
Conscientiousness | −0.14 | 0.310 | −0.39 | 0.003 | 0.00 | 0.982 | −0.16 | 0.243 | 0.10 | 0.478 | 0.23 | 0.093 |
Emotional Stability | −0.03 | 0.853 | −0.07 | 0.629 | −0.02 | 0.906 | −0.01 | 0.930 | −0.05 | 0.718 | −0.08 | 0.566 |
Openness to experience | −0.07 | 0.619 | 0.01 | 0.967 | 0.04 | 0.784 | −0.04 | 0.763 | −0.15 | 0.274 | −0.01 | 0.932 |
Fear of COVID-19 | 0.05 | 0.736 | 0.04 | 0.786 | −0.04 | 0.761 | −0.06 | 0.669 | 0.19 | 0.165 | −0.03 | 0.812 |
Pregnant women (n = 66) | ||||||||||||
Optimism | −0.33 | 0.006 | −0.27 | 0.026 | −0.08 | 0.545 | −0.04 | 0.731 | 0.26 | 0.035 | 0.24 | 0.048 |
Extraversion | −0.03 | 0.824 | −0.11 | 0.374 | −0.14 | 0.247 | −0.03 | 0.841 | 0.30 | 0.014 | 0.32 | 0.009 |
Agreeableness | −0.02 | 0.849 | 0.08 | 0.504 | −0.17 | 0.186 | −0.20 | 0.118 | −0.19 | 0.13 | −0.17 | 0.171 |
Conscientiousness | −0.02 | 0.855 | −0.03 | 0.839 | −0.03 | 0.820 | −0.01 | 0.967 | 0.02 | 0.881 | −0.01 | 0.970 |
Emotional Stability | −0.05 | 0.722 | −0.15 | 0.223 | −0.09 | 0.455 | −0.08 | 0.543 | 0.11 | 0.378 | 0.26 | 0.034 |
Openness to experience | −0.09 | 0.461 | −0.16 | 0.194 | 0.16 | 0.197 | 0.17 | 0.178 | 0.02 | 0.896 | 0.10 | 0.412 |
Fear of COVID-19 | −0.21 | 0.088 | −0.10 | 0.412 | −0.04 | 0.780 | 0.06 | 0.652 | 0.16 | 0.21 | −0.09 | 0.471 |
Variable | Dominant Hand | Non-Dominant Hand | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | se | t (110) | p | β | se | t (110) | p | |
Dependent variable: Pain threshold | ||||||||
Pregnant vs. non-pregnant | −0.23 | 0.21 | −1.07 | 0.285 | −0.34 | 0.21 | −1.61 | 0.110 |
Physical activity | −0.14 | 0.12 | −1.19 | 0.237 | −0.13 | 0.12 | −1.12 | 0.264 |
Age | 0.38 | 0.18 | 2.13 | 0.035 | 0.42 | 0.18 | 2.35 | 0.021 |
Optimism | −0.30 | 0.11 | −2.73 | 0.007 | −0.16 | 0.11 | −1.44 | 0.154 |
Extraversion | −0.01 | 0.10 | −0.05 | 0.957 | −0.12 | 0.10 | −1.16 | 0.251 |
Agreeableness | −0.07 | 0.09 | −0.75 | 0.455 | 0.17 | 0.09 | 1.78 | 0.079 |
Conscientiousness | −0.09 | 0.10 | −0.88 | 0.381 | −0.22 | 0.10 | −2.30 | 0.023 |
Emotional stability | 0.12 | 0.11 | 1.10 | 0.274 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.938 |
Openness to experience | −0.09 | 0.10 | −0.96 | 0.341 | −0.05 | 0.10 | −0.56 | 0.579 |
Fear of COVID-19 | −0.18 | 0.11 | −1.74 | 0.085 | −0.12 | 0.10 | −1.13 | 0.260 |
Dependent variable: Pain tolerance | ||||||||
Pregnant vs. non-pregnant | −0.68 | 0.18 | −3.78 | <0.001 | −0.66 | 0.19 | −3.56 | <0.001 |
Physical activity | −0.16 | 0.10 | −1.56 | 0.122 | −0.15 | 0.11 | −1.43 | 0.157 |
Age | −0.01 | 0.15 | −0.06 | 0.953 | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.28 | 0.780 |
Optimism | −0.02 | 0.09 | −0.25 | 0.804 | −0.02 | 0.10 | −0.17 | 0.865 |
Extraversion | −0.06 | 0.09 | −0.71 | 0.483 | −0.06 | 0.09 | −0.67 | 0.503 |
Agreeableness | −0.02 | 0.08 | −0.19 | 0.853 | 0.10 | 0.08 | 1.16 | 0.248 |
Conscientiousness | 0.00 | 0.08 | −0.02 | 0.984 | −0.08 | 0.09 | −0.97 | 0.334 |
Emotional stability | −0.04 | 0.10 | −0.38 | 0.706 | −0.02 | 0.10 | −0.18 | 0.854 |
Openness to experience | 0.10 | 0.08 | 1.17 | 0.245 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.70 | 0.483 |
Fear of COVID-19 | −0.02 | 0.09 | −0.26 | 0.796 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.947 |
Dependent variable: Subjective pain assessment | ||||||||
Pregnant vs. non-pregnant | −0.06 | 0.21 | −0.29 | 0.770 | 0.08 | 0.21 | 0.39 | 0.696 |
Physical activity | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.84 | 0.400 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.43 | 0.668 |
Age | 0.01 | 0.18 | 0.08 | 0.939 | 0.03 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.851 |
Optimism | 0.15 | 0.11 | 1.32 | 0.191 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.92 | 0.360 |
Extraversion | 0.17 | 0.10 | 1.65 | 0.103 | 0.21 | 0.10 | 2.00 | 0.048 |
Agreeableness | −0.21 | 0.10 | −2.19 | 0.030 | −0.23 | 0.10 | −2.45 | 0.016 |
Conscientiousness | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.63 | 0.530 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.54 | 0.593 |
Emotional stability | 0.02 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.882 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.912 |
Openness to experience | −0.06 | 0.10 | −0.58 | 0.561 | −0.03 | 0.10 | −0.26 | 0.795 |
Fear of COVID-19 | 0.18 | 0.11 | 1.68 | 0.096 | −0.07 | 0.11 | −0.62 | 0.537 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Leźnicka, K.; Pawlak, M.; Gasiorowska, A.; Jażdżewska, A.; Wilczyńska, D.; Godlewska, P.; Lubkowska, A.; Chudecka, M.; Maciejewska-Skrendo, A.; Santos-Rocha, R.; et al. Individual Characteristics and Pain Sensitivity during Pregnancy—A Cross-Sectional Study in Pregnant and Non-Pregnant Women. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 14151. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114151
Leźnicka K, Pawlak M, Gasiorowska A, Jażdżewska A, Wilczyńska D, Godlewska P, Lubkowska A, Chudecka M, Maciejewska-Skrendo A, Santos-Rocha R, et al. Individual Characteristics and Pain Sensitivity during Pregnancy—A Cross-Sectional Study in Pregnant and Non-Pregnant Women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(21):14151. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114151
Chicago/Turabian StyleLeźnicka, Katarzyna, Maciej Pawlak, Agata Gasiorowska, Aleksandra Jażdżewska, Dominika Wilczyńska, Paulina Godlewska, Anna Lubkowska, Monika Chudecka, Agnieszka Maciejewska-Skrendo, Rita Santos-Rocha, and et al. 2022. "Individual Characteristics and Pain Sensitivity during Pregnancy—A Cross-Sectional Study in Pregnant and Non-Pregnant Women" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 21: 14151. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114151