Discrimination Experiences during COVID-19 among a National, Multi-Lingual, Community-Based Sample of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders: COMPASS Findings
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Eligibility, Recruitment and Procedures
2.2. Measurement Framework
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Discrimination Experiences during COVID-19 Pandemic
- you been treated with less respect than other people…
- you been treated unfairly at restaurants or stores…
- people criticized your accent or the way you speak…
- people acted as if they think you are not smart…
- people acted as if they are afraid of you…
- people acted as if they think you are dishonest…
- people acted as if they’re better than you are…
- you been threatened or harassed…
2.3.2. Sociodemographic Characteristics
2.3.3. Individual Level Characteristics
2.3.4. Interpersonal Level Characteristics
2.3.5. Community Level Characteristics
2.3.6. Societal Level Characteristics
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sample Characteristics
3.2. COVID-19-Related Discrimination Experience
3.3. Bivarate and Multivariable Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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N | % | |
---|---|---|
Cultural Group | ||
Asian Indian | 287 | 5.8 |
Ethnic Chinese 1 | 1685 | 33.9 |
Filipino | 173 | 3.5 |
Hmong | 110 | 2.2 |
Japanese | 220 | 4.4 |
Korean | 1119 | 22.5 |
Mixed 2 | 219 | 4.4 |
NHPI | 116 | 2.3 |
Other | 28 | 0.6 |
Other South-East Asian | 36 | 0.6 |
Other South Asian | 20 | 0.4 |
Vietnamese | 958 | 19.3 |
Sex | ||
Female | 3186 | 64.1 |
Male | 1744 | 35.1 |
Other/Decline to State 3 | 41 | 0.8 |
Sexual Orientation | ||
Heterosexual | 4533 | 91.2 |
Not Heterosexual | 224 | 4.5 |
Decline to State | 214 | 4.3 |
Age (in years) | 45.2 (16.4) 4; Range: 18–97 | |
<30 | 1107 | 22.3 |
30–39 | 872 | 17.5 |
40–49 | 909 | 18.3 |
50–59 | 590 | 20.6 |
>60 | 1057 | 21.3 |
Nativity | ||
US-born | 1753 | 35.3 |
Foreign-born | 3152 | 63.4 |
Years in U.S. | 25.6 (15.1) 4; Range: 0–82 | |
Don’t know | 65 | 1.3 |
Limited English Proficiency (LEP) 5 | ||
Yes | 1109 | 22.3 |
No | 3862 | 77.7 |
Caregiver | ||
Yes | 1197 | 24.1 |
No | 3774 | 75.9 |
Marital Status | ||
Single | 1380 | 27.8 |
Married/Living with Partner | 3219 | 64.8 |
Separated/Divorced/Widowed | 333 | 6.7 |
Declined | 39 | 0.8 |
Employment Status | ||
Full-time | 2313 | 46.5 |
Part-time | 842 | 16.9 |
Homemaker | 417 | 8.4 |
Unemployed | 515 | 10.4 |
Retired | 559 | 11.3 |
Other/Decline to state | 325 | 6.5 |
Education | ||
High school or less | 779 | 15.9 |
Some college or technical school | 582 | 11.9 |
Bachelor’s degree | 1803 | 36.9 |
Master’s degree or higher | 1724 | 35.3 |
Annual Household Income ($) | ||
≤25,000 | 805 | 16.2 |
>25,000–75,000 | 1373 | 27.6 |
>75,000–150,000 | 1248 | 25.1 |
>150,000 | 970 | 19.5 |
Decline to state | 575 | 11.6 |
Census Region | ||
West | 3219 | 64.8 |
Midwest | 431 | 8.7 |
Northeast | 607 | 12.2 |
South | 713 | 14.3 |
Self-reported Health Quintiles (range of health score) | 77.9 (15.2) 4; Range: 0–100 | |
Q1 (0–69) | 823 | 17.5 |
Q2 (70–78) | 1073 | 22.8 |
Q3 (79–83) | 934 | 19.9 |
Q4 (84–89) | 778 | 16.6 |
Q5 (90–100) | 1092 | 23.2 |
Length of SIP 6 Order | ||
No order | 327 | 6.6 |
<1 month | 270 | 5.5 |
1 to <2 months | 563 | 11.4 |
2 to <3 months | 570 | 11.5 |
3 months or longer | 2783 | 56.2 |
Do not know | 438 | 8.9 |
The Severity of COVID-19 Where You Live | ||
A lot less | 415 | 8.4 |
Somewhat less | 862 | 17.4 |
About the same | 1098 | 22.2 |
Somewhat more | 1475 | 29.8 |
A lot more | 1098 | 22.2 |
COVID-19 Effect on Family Income/Employment | ||
No Change | 2034 | 41.1 |
Mild | 1520 | 30.7 |
Moderate | 1236 | 25 |
Severe | 161 | 3.2 |
All | Asian Indian (n = 287) | Ethnic Chinese 1 (n = 1685) | Filipino (N = 173) | Hmong (n = 110) | Japanese (n = 220) | Korean (n = 1119) | NHPI 2 (n = 116) | Vietnamese (n = 958) | Other/Mixed (n = 303) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EDS_Overall: Any Discrimination Experience During COVID-19 Due to Being Asian American/Pacific Islander | ||||||||||
Yes | 3018 (60.7) | 119 (41.5) | 1090 (64.7) | 106 (61.3) | 88 (80.0) | 127 (57.7) | 718 (64.2) | 47 (40.5) | 534 (55.7) | 189 (62.4) |
No | 1953 (39.3) | 168 (58.5) | 595 (35.3) | 67 (38.7) | 22 (20.0) | 93 (42.3) | 401 (35.8) | 69 (59.5) | 424 (44.3) | 114 (37.6) |
EDS_1: you been treated with less respect than other people... | ||||||||||
Yes | 2562 (51.5) | 96 (32.7) | 961 (57.0) | 79 (45.7) | 76 (69.1) | 107 (48.6) | 607 (54.2) | 25 (30.2) | 438 (45.7) | 165 (54.5) |
No | 2409 (48.5) | 193 (67.3) | 724 (43.0) | 94 (54.3) | 34 (30.9) | 113 (51.4) | 512 (45.8) | 91 (69.8) | 520 (54.3) | 138 (45.5) |
EDS_2: you been treated unfairly at restaurants or stores... | ||||||||||
Yes | 1685 (33.9) | 67 (23.3) | 649 (48.5) | 52 (30.1) | 60 (54.5) | 65 (29.5) | 349 (31.2) | 26 (22.4) | 303 (31.6) | 114 (37.6) |
No | 3286 (66.1) | 220 (76.7) | 1036 (61.5) | 121 (69.9) | 50 (45.5) | 155 (70.5) | 770 (68.8) | 90 (77.6) | 655 (68.4) | 189 (62.4) |
EDS_3: people criticized your accent or the way you speak... | ||||||||||
Yes | 1344 (27.0) | 73 (35.4) | 488 (39.0) | 41 (23.7) | 43 (39.1) | 33 (15.0) | 318 (28.4) | 22 (19.0) | 244 (25.5) | 82 (27.1) |
No | 3627 (73.0) | 214 (74.6) | 1197 (71.0) | 132 (76.3) | 67 (60.9) | 187 (85.0) | 801 (71.6) | 94 (81.0) | 714 (74.5) | 221 (72.9) |
EDS_4: people acted as if they think you are not smart... | ||||||||||
Yes | 1278 (25.7) | 60 (20.9) | 486 (28.8) | 43 (24.9) | 58 (57.7) | 34 (15.4) | 257 (23.0) | 31 (26.7) | 234 (24.4) | 75 (24.7) |
No | 3693 (74.3) | 227 (79.1) | 1199 (71.2) | 130 (75.1) | 52 (42.3) | 186 (84.6) | 862 (77.0) | 85 (73.3) | 724 (75.6) | 228 (75.3) |
EDS_5: people acted as if they are afraid of you... | ||||||||||
Yes | 1781 (35.8) | 55 (19.2) | 705 (41.8) | 50 (28.9) | 73 (66.4) | 72 (32.7) | 359 (32.1) | 31 (26.7) | 313 (32.7) | 123 (40.6) |
No | 3190 (64.2) | 232 (80.8) | 980 (58.2) | 123 (71.1) | 37 (33.6) | 148 (67.3) | 760 (67.9) | 85 (73.3) | 645 (67.3) | 180 (59.4) |
EDS_6: people acted as if they think you are dishonest... | ||||||||||
Yes | 1113 (22.4) | 53 (18.5) | 447 (26.5) | 33 (19.1) | 47 (42.7) | 38 (17.3) | 184 (16.4) | 25 (21.5) | 209 (21.8) | 77 (25.4) |
No | 3858 (77.6) | 234 (81.5) | 1238 (73.5) | 140 (80.9) | 63 (57.3) | 182 (82.7) | 935 (83.6) | 91 (78.5) | 749 (78.2) | 226 (74.6) |
EDS_7: people acted as if they’re better than you are… | ||||||||||
Yes | 1878 (37.8) | 84 (29.3) | 699 (41.5) | 75 (43.3) | 69 (62.7) | 75 (34.1) | 409 (36.5) | 34 (29.3) | 309 (32.2) | 124 (40.9) |
No | 3093 (62.2) | 203 (70.7) | 986 (58.5) | 98 (56.7) | 41 (37.3) | 145 (65.9) | 710 (63.5) | 82 (70.7) | 649 (67.8) | 179 (59.1) |
EDS_8: you been threatened or harassed… | ||||||||||
Yes | 1282 (25.8) | 53 (18.5) | 562 (33.3) | 41 (23.7) | 49 (44.5) | 50 (22.7) | 231 (20.6) | 18 (15.5) | 195 (20.3) | 83 (27.4) |
No | 3689 (74.2) | 234 (81.5) | 1123 (66.7) | 132 (76.3) | 61 (55.5) | 170 (77.3) | 888 (79.4) | 98 (84.5) | 763 (79.7) | 220 (72.6) |
Variables | Experience of Discrimination | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Yes N = 3018 (%) | No N = 1953 (%) | Crude OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | |
Cultural Group | ||||
Asian Indian | 119 (41.5) | 168 (58.5) | Reference | Reference |
Ethnic Chinese 1 | 1090 (64.7) | 595 (35.3) | 2.59 (2.00–3.34) | 2.38 (1.79–3.17) |
Filipino | 106 (61.3) | 67 (38.7) | 2.23 (1.52–3.29) | 1.81 (1.18–2.78) |
Hmong | 88 (80.0) | 22 (20.0) | 5.65 (3.35–9.53) | 2.09 (1.10–3.97) |
Japanese | 127 (57.7) | 93 (42.3) | 1.93 (1.35–2.75) | 2.21 (1.49–3.28) |
Korean | 718 (64.2) | 401 (35.8) | 2.53 (1.94–3.29) | 2.04 (1.50–2.78) |
NHPI 2 | 47 (40.5) | 69 (59.5) | 0.96 (0.62–1.49) | 1.06 (0.64–1.76) |
Vietnamese | 534 (55.7) | 424 (44.3) | 1.78 (1.36–2.32) | 1.61 (1.18–2.20) |
Other/Mixed | 189 (62.4) | 114 (37.6) | 2.34 (1.68–3.26) | 1.78 (1.23–2.57) |
Sex | ||||
Female | 1976 (62.0) | 1210 (38.0) | 1.17 (1.04–1.32) | 1.24 (1.08–1.43) |
Male | 1015 (58.2) | 729 (41.8) | Reference | Reference |
Other/Decline to State | 27 (65.9) | 14 (34.1) | 1.39 (0.72–2.66) | 1.16 (0.48–2.85) |
Sexual Orientation | ||||
Heterosexual | 2716 (59.9) | 1817 (40.1) | Reference | Reference |
Not Heterosexual | 166 (74.1) | 78 (25.9) | 1.91 (1.41–2.60) | 1.70 (1.21–2.39) |
Decline to State | 136 (63.6) | 78 (36.4) | 1.17 (0.88–1.55) | 1.45 (1.02–2.06) |
Age (in years) | ||||
<30 | 773 (69.8) | 334 (30.2) | 2.48 (2.08–2.96) | 1.93 (1.46–2.56) |
30–39 | 579 (66.4) | 293 (33.6) | 2.12 (1.76–2.55) | 1.60 (1.23–2.06) |
40–49 | 566 (62.3) | 343 (37.7) | 1.77 (1.48–2.12) | 1.36 (1.07–1.74) |
50–59 | 590 (57.5) | 436 (42.5) | 1.45 (1.22–1.73) | 1.22 (0.97–1.53) |
>60 | 510 (48.2) | 547 (51.8) | Reference | Reference |
Nativity | ||||
US-born | 1104 (63.0) | 649 (37.0) | 1.16 (1.03–1.31) | NA |
Foreign-born | 1876 (59.5) | 1276 (40.5) | Reference | |
LEP 3 | ||||
Yes | 626 (56.6) | 483 (43.5) | Reference | Reference |
No | 2392 (61.9) | 1470 (38.1) | 1.25 (1.10–1.43) | 1.21 (1.00–1.47) |
Caring | ||||
Yes | 736 (61.5) | 461 (38.5) | 1.04 (0.91–1.19) | NA |
No | 2282 (60.5) | 1492 (39.5) | Reference | |
Marital Status | ||||
Single | 907 (65.7) | 473 (34.3) | 1.32 (1.16–1.51) | 0.89 (0.74–1.08) |
Married/Living with Partner | 1907 (59.3) | 1312 (40.8) | Reference | Reference |
Separated/Divorced/Widowed | 178 (53.5) | 155 (46.5) | 0.79 (0.63–0.99) | 1.06 (0.82–1.38) |
Declined | 26 (66.7) | 13 (33.3) | 1.04 (0.53–2.05) | 1.16 (0.47–2.85) |
Employment Status | ||||
Full-time | 1451 (62.7) | 862 (37.3) | 2.04 (1.69–2.45) | 1.27 (0.97–1.66) |
Part-time | 533 (63.3) | 309 (36.7) | 2.09 (1.68–2.59) | 1.15 (0.87–1.52) |
Homemaker | 253 (60.7) | 164 (39.3) | 1.87 (1.44–2.41) | 1.17 (0.84–1.63) |
Unemployed | 328 (63.7) | 187 (36.3) | 2.12 (1.66–2.71) | 1.10 (0.79–1.51) |
Retired | 253 (45.3) | 306 (54.7) | Reference | Reference |
Other/Decline to state | 200 (61.5) | 125 (38.5) | 0.95 (0.75–1.21) | 0.93 (0.65–1.34) |
Education | ||||
High school or less | 436 (56.0) | 343 (44.0) | Reference | Reference |
Some college/technical school | 380 (65.3) | 202 (34.7) | 1.48 (1.19–1.85) | 1.16 (0.90–1.49) |
Bachelor’s degree | 1090 (60.5) | 713 (39.5) | 1.20 (1.02–1.43) | 0.95 (0.77–1.17) |
Master’s degree or higher | 1064 (61.7) | 660 (38.3) | 1.27 (1.07–1.51) | 1.19 (0.94–1.50) |
Annual Household Income ($) | ||||
≤25,000 | 451 (56.0) | 354 (44.0) | Reference | N/A |
>25,000–75,000 | 881 (64.2) | 492 (35.8) | 1.41 (1.18–1.68) | |
>75,000–150,000 | 823 (66.0) | 425 (34.0) | 1.52 (1.27–1.82) | |
>150,000 | 548 (56.5) | 422 (43.5) | 1.02 (0.94–1.23) | |
Decline to state | 315 (54.8) | 260 (45.2) | 0.95 (0.77–1.18) | |
Census Region | ||||
West | 1825 (56.7) | 1394 (43.3) | Reference | Reference |
Midwest | 328 (76.1) | 103 (23.9) | 2.43 (1.93–3.07) | 2.14 (1.60–2.86) |
Northeast | 387 (63.8) | 220 (36.2) | 1.34 (1.12–1.61) | 1.32 (1.07–1.63) |
South | 478 (67.0) | 235 (33.0) | 1.55 (1.31–1.84) | 1.55 (1.27–1.89) |
Self-reported Health Quintiles | ||||
Q1 (lowest) | 568 (69.0) | 255 (31.0) | 2.13 (1.76–2.58) | 2.02 (1.64–2.47) |
Q2 | 692 (64.5) | 381 (35.5) | 1.74 (1.46–2.07) | 1.59 (1.32–1.92) |
Q3 | 570 (61.0) | 364 (39.0) | 1.50 (1.26–1.79) | 1.43 (1.18–1.72) |
Q4 | 466 (59.9) | 312 (40.1) | 1.43 (1.19–1.72) | 1.38 (1.13–1.69) |
Q5 (highest) | 558 (51.1) | 534 (48.9) | Reference | Reference |
Length of SIP 4 Order | ||||
No order | 166 (50.8) | 161 (49.2) | Reference | Reference |
<1 month | 161 (59.6) | 109 (40.4) | 1.59 (1.21–2.10) | 1.20 (0.84–1.73) |
1 to <2 months | 350 (62.2) | 213 (37.8) | 2.24 (1.69–2.97) | 1.43 (1.04–1.96) |
2 to <3 months | 398 (69.8) | 172 (30.2) | 1.44 (1.15–1.82) | 1.85 (1.34–2.57) |
3 months or longer | 1665 (59.8) | 1118 (40.2) | 1.43 (1.03–1.98) | 1.43 (1.09–1.89) |
Do not know | 268 (61.2) | 170 (38.8) | 1.53 (1.14–2.04) | 1.30 (0.93–1.82) |
The severity of COVID-19 where you live | ||||
A lot less | 199 (47.9) | 216 (52.1) | Reference | Reference |
Somewhat less | 487 (56.5) | 375 (43.5) | 1.41 (1.11–1.78) | 1.15 (0.89–1.50) |
About the same | 701 (63.8) | 397 (36.2) | 1.92 (1.53–2.41) | 1.52 (1.18–1.97) |
Somewhat more | 942 (63.9) | 533 (36.1) | 1.92 (1.54–2.39) | 1.52 (1.18–1.94) |
A lot more | 676 (61.6) | 422 (38.4) | 1.74 (1.39–2.18) | 1.37 (1.06–1.77) |
COVID-19 Effect on Family Income/Employment | ||||
No Change | 1078 (53.0) | 956 (47.0) | Reference | Reference |
Mild | 970 (63.8) | 550 (36.2) | 1.56 (1.37–1.79) | 1.46 (1.25–1.69) |
Moderate | 838 (67.8) | 398 (32.2) | 1.87 (1.61–2.16) | 1.95 (1.64–2.32) |
Severe | 123 (76.4) | 38 (23.6) | 2.87 (1.98–4.17) | 3.19 (2.10–4.85) |
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Ta Park, V.M.; Dougan, M.M.; Meyer, O.L.; Nam, B.; Tzuang, M.; Park, L.G.; Vuong, Q.; Bang, J.; Tsoh, J.Y. Discrimination Experiences during COVID-19 among a National, Multi-Lingual, Community-Based Sample of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders: COMPASS Findings. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020924
Ta Park VM, Dougan MM, Meyer OL, Nam B, Tzuang M, Park LG, Vuong Q, Bang J, Tsoh JY. Discrimination Experiences during COVID-19 among a National, Multi-Lingual, Community-Based Sample of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders: COMPASS Findings. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(2):924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020924
Chicago/Turabian StyleTa Park, Van M., Marcelle M. Dougan, Oanh L. Meyer, Bora Nam, Marian Tzuang, Linda G. Park, Quyen Vuong, Joon Bang, and Janice Y. Tsoh. 2022. "Discrimination Experiences during COVID-19 among a National, Multi-Lingual, Community-Based Sample of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders: COMPASS Findings" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 2: 924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020924