Families, Schools, and the Longitudinal Changes in Psychological Distress among College Students during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from a National Panel Survey in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedures
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. The Change in Psychological Distress
2.2.2. Family Background
2.2.3. Education Background
2.2.4. Other Covariates
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Implications
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Two Random-Half Subsamples in Baseline Survey | Two Subsamples in the Follow-Up Survey | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Selected | Non-Selected | p-Value | Followed-Up | Non-Followed-Up | p-Value |
Gender | 0.57 | <0.01 | ||||
Male | 45.9% | 46.3% | 43.1% | 50.3% | ||
Female | 54.1% | 53.7% | 56.9% | 49.7% | ||
Age | 20.2 (2.0) | 20.2 (2.0) | 0.74 | 19.8 (1.9) | 20.9 (2.0) | <0.01 |
Only child | 0.41 | 0.04 | ||||
No | 51.1% | 51.8% | 52.0% | 49.7% | ||
Yes | 48.9% | 48.2% | 48.0% | 50.3% | ||
Family economic condition | 0.57 | 0.92 | ||||
Below average | 25.6% | 25.7% | 25.5% | 25.8% | ||
About average | 64.1% | 64.5% | 64.3% | 63.8% | ||
Above average | 10.3% | 9.8% | 10.2% | 10.4% | ||
Parental education | 0.30 | 0.25 | ||||
Below college | 85.5% | 84.9% | 85.9% | 84.9% | ||
College and above | 14.5% | 15.1% | 14.1% | 15.1% | ||
Current residence | 0.49 | 0.28 | ||||
Urban | 47.5% | 47.0% | 48.0% | 46.8% | ||
Rural | 52.5% | 53.0% | 52.0% | 53.2% | ||
Schooling level | 0.50 | 0.08 | ||||
Vocational students | 35.5% | 35.7% | 33.5% | 37.6% | ||
Academic undergraduates | 52.2% | 52.6% | 53.5% | 50.2% | ||
Academic postgraduates | 12.3% | 11.7% | 13.0% | 12.2% | ||
Academic performance | 0.23 | 0.15 | ||||
Below average | 7.3% | 7.7% | 7.2% | 7.5% | ||
About average | 36.1% | 34.6% | 34.5% | 38.6% | ||
Above average | 29.1% | 29.6% | 25.7% | 24.3% | ||
Unclear | 27.5% | 28.1% | 32.6% | 29.6% | ||
Major | 0.79 | <0.01 | ||||
Humanities and Social Sciences | 45.1% | 44.9% | 48.0% | 40.5% | ||
Natural Sciences | 54.9% | 55.1% | 52.0% | 59.5% | ||
Baseline psychological distress (10–50) | 19.1 (7.1) | -- | 18.9 (7.0) | 19.5 (7.3) | 0.06 |
Baseline K10 Score | |||
---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | p-Value | |
Parental education | 0.04 | ||
Below college | 19.0 | 7.1 | |
College and above | 19.7 | 7.5 | |
Family economic condition | <0.01 | ||
Below average | 20.3 | 7.5 | |
About average | 18.7 | 6.9 | |
Above average | 18.7 | 7.1 | |
Current residence | 0.88 | ||
Urban | 19.1 | 7.3 | |
Rural | 19.1 | 6.9 | |
Schooling level | <0.01 | ||
Vocational students | 19.0 | 7.3 | |
Academic undergraduates | 19.5 | 7.1 | |
Academic postgraduates | 17.8 | 6.7 | |
Academic performance | <0.01 | ||
Below average | 20.9 | 7.8 | |
About average | 19.3 | 7.0 | |
Above average | 18.8 | 7.0 | |
Unclear | 18.8 | 7.1 | |
Major | 0.99 | ||
Humanities & Social Sciences | 19.1 | 7.1 | |
Natural Sciences | 19.1 | 7.1 |
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Variables | % | n |
---|---|---|
Change of psychological distress | ||
A marked decrease | 12.6 | 616 |
No marked change | 74.0 | 3629 |
A marked increase | 13.5 | 662 |
Gender | ||
Male | 43.1 | 2113 |
Female | 56.9 | 2794 |
Age (Mean/SD) | 19.8/1.9 | 4907 |
Only child | ||
No | 52.1 | 2554 |
Yes | 48.0 | 2353 |
Family economic condition | ||
Below average | 25.5 | 1253 |
About average | 64.3 | 3153 |
Above average | 10.2 | 501 |
Parental education | ||
Below college | 85.9 | 4213 |
College and above | 14.1 | 694 |
Current residence | ||
Urban | 48.0 | 2354 |
Rural | 52.0 | 2553 |
Schooling level | ||
Vocational students | 33.5 | 1645 |
Academic undergraduates | 53.5 | 2626 |
Academic postgraduates | 13.0 | 636 |
Academic performance | ||
Below average | 7.2 | 353 |
About average | 34.5 | 1695 |
Above average | 25.7 | 1260 |
Unclear | 32.6 | 1599 |
Major | ||
Humanities and social sciences | 48.0 | 2357 |
Natural sciences | 52.0 | 2550 |
The Change in Psychological Distress (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marked Decrease | No Marked Change | Marked Increase | Total (n) | χ2 | |
Parental education | 3.34 | ||||
Below college | 14.6 | 72.9 | 12.6 | 100.0 (4213) | |
College and above | 12.1 | 75.8 | 12.1 | 100.0 (694) | |
Family economic condition | 12.50 * | ||||
Below average | 16.4 | 70.6 | 13.1 | 100.0 (1253) | |
About average | 13.9 | 74.1 | 12.0 | 100.0 (3153) | |
Above average | 10.8 | 74.9 | 14.4 | 100.0 (501) | |
Current residence | 0.31 | ||||
Urban | 14.1 | 73.6 | 12.3 | 100.0 (2354) | |
Rural | 14.3 | 73.0 | 12.7 | 100.0 (2553) | |
Schooling level | 11.25 * | ||||
Vocational students | 13.1 | 71.9 | 15.1 | 100.0 (1645) | |
Academic undergraduates | 12.1 | 75.3 | 12.6 | 100.0 (2626) | |
Academic postgraduates | 13.1 | 74.1 | 12.9 | 100.0 (636) | |
Academic performance | 16.99 ** | ||||
Below average | 15.9 | 65.7 | 18.4 | 100.0 (353) | |
About average | 12.7 | 73.3 | 13.9 | 100.0 (1695) | |
Above average | 12.6 | 75.2 | 12.1 | 100.0 (1260) | |
Unclear | 11.6 | 75.4 | 13.1 | 100.0 (1599) | |
Major | 0.72 | ||||
Humanities & Social Sciences | 12.2 | 74.5 | 13.4 | 100.0 (2357) | |
Natural Sciences | 12.9 | 73.5 | 13.6 | 100.0 (2550) |
Binary Logit | Ordered Logit | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | OR | 95% CI | |
Female | 0.71 *** | [0.59, 0.85] | 0.81 ** | [0.70, 0.94] |
Age | 0.96 | [0.89, 1.03] | 0.98 | [0.93, 1.04] |
Only child | 1.17 | [0.97, 1.41] | 1.11 | [0.96, 1.28] |
Parental education (College & above = 1) | 1.03 | [0.78, 1.35] | 1.17 | [0.95, 1.44] |
Family economic condition (Below average = 0) | ||||
About average | 0.89 | [0.73, 1.09] | 0.90 | [0.77, 1.06] |
Above average | 1.03 | [0.74, 1.42] | 1.04 | [0.80, 1.34] |
Current residence (Rural = 1) | 1.00 | [0.82, 1.22] | 0.98 | [0.84, 1.14] |
Schooling level (Vocational students = 0) | ||||
Academic undergraduates | 0.82 * | [0.67, 0.99] | 0.87 * | [0.83, 0.97] |
Academic postgraduates | 0.80 * | [0.60, 0.97] | 0.84 * | [0.62, 0.96] |
Academic performance (Below average = 0) | ||||
About average | 0.65 ** | [0.47, 0.88] | 0.77 * | [0.59, 0.98] |
Above average | 0.56 *** | [0.41, 0.78] | 0.71 * | [0.54, 0.93] |
Unclear | 0.56 *** | [0.41, 0.78] | 0.71 * | [0.55, 0.93] |
Major (Natural Sciences = 1) | 0.90 | [0.76, 1.08] | 0.89 | [0.77, 1.02] |
Psychological distress at T1 | 0.93 *** | [0.92, 0.94] | 0.86 *** | [0.85, 0.87] |
n | 4907 | 4907 |
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Zhu, F.; Zhang, Y.; Li, Q.; Xu, Y.; Liu, B. Families, Schools, and the Longitudinal Changes in Psychological Distress among College Students during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from a National Panel Survey in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912882
Zhu F, Zhang Y, Li Q, Xu Y, Liu B. Families, Schools, and the Longitudinal Changes in Psychological Distress among College Students during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from a National Panel Survey in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912882
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhu, Fengxia, Yueyun Zhang, Qi Li, Yuanyao Xu, and Baozhong Liu. 2022. "Families, Schools, and the Longitudinal Changes in Psychological Distress among College Students during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from a National Panel Survey in China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912882