Effects of Sport-Based Exercise Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Materials and Analysis
2.1. Review Question
2.2. Search Strategy
2.3. Eligibility Criteria
2.4. Data Management
2.5. Data Extraction
2.6. Risk of Bias (Quality) Assessment
2.7. Strategy for Data Synthesis
3. Results
3.1. Study Selection
3.2. Study Characteristics
3.3. Methodological Quality
3.4. Meta-Analysis Results of the Effects of Sport-Based Interventions on Working Memory
3.5. Meta-Analysis Results of the Effects of Sport-Based Interventions on Inhibition
3.6. Meta-Analysis Results of the Effects of Sport-Based Interventions on Cognitive Flexibility
3.7. Adverse Effects
4. Discussion
4.1. Working Memory
4.2. Inhibition
4.3. Cognitive Flexibility
4.4. Potential Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Friedman, N.P.; Miyake, A. Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions: Individual Differences as a Window on Cognitive Structure. Cortex 2017, 86, 186–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lehto, J.; Juujärvi, P.; Kooistra, L.; Pulkkinen, L. Dimensions of Executive Functioning: Evidence from Children. Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 2003, 21, 59–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miyake, A.; Friedman, N.P.; Emerson, M.J.; Witzki, A.H.; Howerter, A.; Wager, T.D. The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 2000, 41, 49–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Munakata, Y.; Herd, S.A.; Chatham, C.H.; Depue, B.E.; Banich, M.T.; O’Reilly, R.C. A Unified Framework for Inhibitory Control. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2011, 15, 453–459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Baddeley, A. Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2012, 63, 1–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dajani, D.R.; Uddin, L.Q. Demystifying Cognitive Flexibility: Implications for Clinical and Developmental Neuroscience. Trends Neurosci. 2015, 38, 571–578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cahn-Weiner, D.; Tomaszewski, S.; Julian, L.; Harvey, D.; Kramer, J.; Reed, B.; Mungas, D.; Wetzel, M.; Chui, H. Cognitive and Neuroimaging Predictors of Instrumental Activities of Daily Living. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2007, 13, 747–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vazzana, R.; Bandinelli, S.; Lauretani, F.; Volpato, S.; Lauretani, F.; Di Iorio, A.; Abate, G.; Corsi, A.; Milaneschi, Y.; Guralnik, J.; et al. Trail Making Test Predicts Physical Impairment and Mortality in Older Persons. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2010, 58, 719–723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zelazo, P.D.; Craik, F.I.M.; Booth, L. Executive Function across the Life Span. Acta Psychol. 2004, 115, 167–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Greeff, J.W.; Bosker, R.J.; Oosterlaan, J.; Visscher, C.; Hartman, E. Effects of Physical Activity on Executive Functions, Attention and Academic Performance in Preadolescent Children: A Meta-Analysis. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2018, 21, 501–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, S.; Yu, Q.; Li, Z.; Cunha, P.M.; Zhang, Y.; Kong, Z.; Lin, W.; Chen, S.; Cai, Y. Effects of Acute and Chronic Exercises on Executive Function in Children and Adolescents: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Verburgh, L.; Königs, M.; Scherder, E.J.A.; Oosterlaan, J. Physical Exercise and Executive Functions in Preadolescent Children, Adolescents and Young Adults: A Meta-Analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 2014, 48, 973–979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Xue, Y.; Yang, Y.; Huang, T. Effects of Chronic Exercise Interventions on Executive Function among Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 2019, 53, 1397–1404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Álvarez-Bueno, C.; Pesce, C.; Cavero-Redondo, I.; Sánchez-López, M.; Martínez-Hortelano, J.A.; Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. The Effect of Physical Activity Interventions on Children’s Cognition and Metacognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry 2017, 56, 729–738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bidzan-Bluma, I.; Lipowska, M. Physical Activity and Cognitive Functioning of Children: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diamond, A.; Lee, K. Interventions Shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4–12 Years Old. Science 2011, 333, 959–964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Belling, P.K.; Ward, P. Time to Start Training: A Review of Cognitive Research in Sport and Bridging the Gap from Academia to the Field. Procedia Manuf. 2015, 3, 1219–1224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Contreras-Osorio, F.; Campos-Jara, C.; Martínez-Salazar, C.; Chirosa-Ríos, L.; Martínez-García, D. Effects of Sport-Based Interventions on Children’s Executive Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Contreras-Osorio, F.; Guzmán-Guzmán, I.P.; Cerda-Vega, E.; Chirosa-Ríos, L.; Ramírez-Campillo, R.; Campos-Jara, C. Effects of the Type of Sports Practice on the Executive Functions of Schoolchildren. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 3886. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seer, C.; Sidlauskaite, J.; Lange, F.; Rodríguez-Nieto, G.; Swinnen, S.P. Cognition and Action: A Latent Variable Approach to Study Contributions of Executive Functions to Motor Control in Older Adults. Aging 2021, 13, 15942–15963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Impe, A.; Bruijn, S.M.; Coxon, J.P.; Wenderoth, N.; Sunaert, S.; Duysens, J.; Swinnen, S.P. Age-Related Neural Correlates of Cognitive Task Performanceunder Increased Postural Load. Age 2013, 35, 2111–2124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Heuninckx, S.; Wenderoth, N.; Debaere, F.; Peeters, R.; Swinnen, S.P. Neural Basis of Aging: The Penetration of Cognition into Action Control. J. Neurosci. 2005, 25, 6787–6796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Park, D.; Reuter-Lorenz, P. The Adaptive Brain: Aging and Neurocognitive Scaffolding. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2009, 60, 173–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Seidler, R.D.; Bernard, J.A.; Burutolu, T.B.; Fling, B.W.; Gordon, M.T.; Gwin, J.T.; Kwak, Y.; Lipps, D.B. Motor Control and Aging: Links to Age-Related Brain Structural, Functional, and Biochemical Effects. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2010, 34, 721–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Michely, J.; Volz, L.J.; Hoffstaedter, F.; Tittgemeyer, M.; Eickhoff, S.B.; Fink, G.R.; Grefkes, C. Network Connectivity of Motor Control in the Ageing Brain. NeuroImage Clin. 2018, 18, 443–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Di, X.; Rypma, B.; Biswal, B. Correspondence of Executive Function Related Functional and Anatomical Alterations in Aging Brain. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2014, 48, 41–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Turner, G.R.; Spreng, R.N. Executive Functions and Neurocognitive Aging: Dissociable Patterns of Brain Activity. Neurobiol. Aging 2012, 33, 826.e1–826.e13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carvalho, A.; Rea, I.M.; Parimon, T.; Cusack, B.J. Physical Activity and Cognitive Function in Individuals over 60 Years of Age: A Systematic Review. Clin. Interv. Aging 2014, 9, 661–682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Etnier, J.L.; Drollette, E.S.; Slutsky, A.B. Physical Activity and Cognition: A Narrative Review of the Evidence for Older Adults. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2019, 42, 156–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Northey, J.M.; Cherbuin, N.; Pumpa, K.L.; Smee, D.J.; Rattray, B. Exercise Interventions for Cognitive Function in Adults Older than 50: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 2018, 52, 154–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Barha, C.K.; Dao, E.; Marcotte, L.; Hsiung, G.-Y.R.; Tam, R.; Liu-Ambrose, T. Cardiovascular Risk Moderates the Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Functions in Older Adults with Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Cognitive Impairment. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 19974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu-Ambrose, T.; Barha, C.K.; Best, J.R. Physical Activity for Brain Health in Older Adults1. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2018, 43, 1105–1112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tsai, C.-L.; Chang, Y.-C.; Pan, C.-Y.; Wang, T.-C.; Ukropec, J.; Ukropcová, B. Acute Effects of Different Exercise Intensities on Executive Function and Oculomotor Performance in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: Moderate-Intensity Continuous Exercise vs. High-Intensity Interval Exercise. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2021, 13, 743479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Erickson, K.; Hillman, C.; Stillman, C.; Ballard, R.; Bloodgood, B.; Conroy, D.; Macko, R.; Marquez, D.; Petruzzello, S.; Powell, K. Physical Activity, Cognition, and Brain Outcomes: A Review of the 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 2019, 51, 1242–1251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Colcombe, S.; Kramer, A.F. Fitness Effects on the Cognitive Function of Older Adults: A Meta–Analytic Study. Psychol. Sci. 2003, 14, 125–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barha, C.K.; Davis, J.C.; Falck, R.S.; Nagamatsu, L.S.; Liu-Ambrose, T. Sex Differences in Exercise Efficacy to Improve Cognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials in Older Humans. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2017, 46, 71–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barha, C.K.; Hsu, C.L.; ten Brinke, L.; Liu-Ambrose, T. Biological Sex: A Potential Moderator of Physical Activity Efficacy on Brain Health. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2019, 11, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chen, F.T.; Etnier, J.L.; Chan, K.H.; Chiu, P.K.; Hung, T.M.; Chang, Y.K. Effects of Exercise Training Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sport. Med. 2020, 50, 1451–1467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ren, F.F.; Chen, F.T.; Zhou, W.S.; Cho, Y.M.; Ho, T.J.; Hung, T.M.; Chang, Y.K. Effects of Chinese Mind-Body Exercises on Executive Function in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 1831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Voss, M.W.; Erickson, K.I.; Prakash, R.S.; Chaddock, L.; Kim, J.S.; Alves, H.; Szabo, A.; Phillips, S.M.; Wójcicki, T.R.; Mailey, E.L.; et al. Neurobiological Markers of Exercise-Related Brain Plasticity in Older Adults. Brain Behav. Immun. 2013, 28, 90–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Canton-Martínez, E.; Rentería, I.; García-Suárez, P.C.; Moncada-Jiménez, J.; Machado-Parra, J.P.; Lira, F.S.; Johnson, D.K.; Jiménez-Maldonado, A. Concurrent Training Increases Serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Older Adults Regardless of the Exercise Frequency. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2022, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhidong, C.; Wang, X.; Yin, J.; Song, D.; Chen, Z. Effects of Physical Exercise on Working Memory in Older Adults: A Systematic and Meta-Analytic Review. Eur. Rev. Aging Phys. Act. 2021, 18, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xiong, J.; Ye, M.; Wang, L.; Zheng, G. Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Function in Cognitively Healthy Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials: Physical Exercise for Executive Function. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2021, 114, 103810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pacheco Lopes Filho, B.J.; De Oliveira, C.R.; Valle Gottlieb, M.G. Effects of Karate-Dō Training in Older Adults Cognition: Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Phys. Educ. 2019, 30, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cho, S.-Y.; Roh, H.-T. Taekwondo Enhances Cognitive Function as a Result of Increased Neurotrophic Growth Factors in Elderly Women. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Jansen, P.; Dahmen-Zimmer, K. Effects of Cognitive, Motor, and Karate Training on Cognitive Functioning and Emotional Well-Being of Elderly People. Front. Psychol. 2012, 3, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Witte, K.; Kropf, S.; Darius, S.; Emmermacher, P.; Böckelmann, I. Comparing the Effectiveness of Karate and Fitness Training on Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults—A Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Sport Health Sci. 2016, 5, 484–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jansen, P.; Dahmen-Zimmer, K.; Kudielka, B.M.; Schulz, A. Effects of Karate Training Versus Mindfulness Training on Emotional Well-Being and Cognitive Performance in Later Life. Res. Aging 2017, 39, 1118–1144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albinet, C.T.; Abou-Dest, A.; André, N.; Audiffren, M. Executive Functions Improvement Following a 5-Month Aquaerobics Program in Older Adults: Role of Cardiac Vagal Control in Inhibition Performance. Biol. Psychol. 2016, 115, 69–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsai, C.-L.; Pan, C.-Y.; Chen, F.-C.; Tseng, Y.-T. Open- and Closed-Skill Exercise Interventions Produce Different Neurocognitive Effects on Executive Functions in the Elderly: A 6-Month Randomized, Controlled Trial. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2017, 9, 294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shimada, H.; Lee, S.; Akishita, M.; Kozaki, K.; Iijima, K.; Nagai, K.; Ishii, S.; Tanaka, M.; Koshiba, H.; Tanaka, T.; et al. Effects of Golf Training on Cognition in Older Adults: A Randomised Controlled Trial. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2018, 72, 944–950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kanwar, K.D.; Moore, J.L.; Hawkes, R.; Salem, G.J. Golf as a Physical Activity to Improve Walking Speed and Cognition in Older Adults: A Non-Randomized, Pre-Post, Pilot Study. Ment. Health Phys. Act. 2021, 21, 100410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nemoto, Y.; Sakurai, R.; Ogawa, S.; Maruo, K.; Fujiwara, Y. Effects of an Unsupervised Nordic Walking Intervention on Cognitive and Physical Function among Older Women Engaging in Volunteer Activity. J. Exerc. Sci. Fit. 2021, 19, 209–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reddy, P.; Dias, I.; Holland, C.; Campbell, N.; Nagar, I.; Connolly, L.; Krustrup, P.; Hubball, H. Walking Football as Sustainable Exercise for Older Adults–A Pilot Investigation. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2017, 17, 638–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Caspersen, C.J.; Powell, K.E.; Christenson, G.M. Physical Activity, Exercise, and Physical Fitness: Definitions and Distinctions for Health-Related Research. Public Health Rep. 1985, 100, 126–131. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Snyder, E.E.; Spreitzer, E. Sociology of Sport: An Overview. Sociol. Q. 1974, 15, 467–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- You, Y.; Ma, Y.; Ji, Z.; Meng, F.; Li, A.; Zhang, C. Unconscious Response Inhibition Differences between Table Tennis Athletes and Non-Athletes. PeerJ 2018, 6, e5548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chiu, Y.K.; Pan, C.Y.; Chen, F.C.; Tseng, Y.T.; Tsai, C.L. Behavioral and Cognitive Electrophysiological Differences in the Executive Functions of Taiwanese Basketball Players as a Function of Playing Position. Brain Sci. 2020, 10, 387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ding, Q.; Huang, L.; Chen, J.; Dehghani, F.; Du, J.; Li, Y.; Li, Q.; Zhang, H.; Qian, Z.; Shen, W.; et al. Sports Augmented Cognitive Benefits: An FMRI Study of Executive Function with Go/NoGo Task. Neural Plast. 2021, 2021, 7476717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Visser, A.; Büchel, D.; Lehmann, T.; Baumeister, J. Continuous Table Tennis Is Associated with Processing in Frontal Brain Areas: An EEG Approach. Exp. Brain Res. 2022, 240, 1899–1909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pesce, C. Shifting the Focus From Quantitative to Qualitative Exercise Characteristics in Exercise and Cognition Research. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2012, 34, 766–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tomporowski, P.D.; McCullick, B.; Pendleton, D.M.; Pesce, C. Exercise and Children’s Cognition: The Role of Exercise Characteristics and a Place for Metacognition. J. Sport Health Sci. 2015, 4, 47–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Best, J.R. Effects of Physical Activity on Children’s Executive Function: Contributions of Experimental Research on Aerobic Exercise. Dev. Rev. 2010, 30, 331–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tait, J.L.; Duckham, R.L.; Milte, C.M.; Main, L.C.; Daly, R.M. Influence of Sequential vs. Simultaneous Dual-Task Exercise Training on Cognitive Function in Older Adults. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2017, 9, 368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Guo, W.; Zang, M.; Klich, S.; Kawczyński, A.; Smoter, M.; Wang, B. Effect of Combined Physical and Cognitive Interventions on Executive Functions in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Outcomes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wollesen, B.; Wildbredt, A.; van Schooten, K.S.; Lim, M.L.; Delbaere, K. The Effects of Cognitive-Motor Training Interventions on Executive Functions in Older People: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Eur. Rev. Aging Phys. Act. 2020, 17, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan, S.E.; et al. The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews. BMJ 2021, 372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frost, A.; Moussaoui, S.; Kaur, J.; Aziz, S.; Fukuda, K.; Niemeier, M. Is the N-Back Task a Measure of Unstructured Working Memory Capacity? Towards Understanding Its Connection to Other Working Memory Tasks. Acta Psychol. 2021, 219, 103398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barzykowski, K.; Wereszczyński, M.; Hajdas, S.; Radel, R. Cognitive Inhibition Behavioral Tasks in Online and Laboratory Settings: Data from Stroop, SART and Eriksen Flanker Tasks. Data Br. 2022, 43, 108398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suzuki, H.; Sakuma, N.; Kobayashi, M.; Ogawa, S.; Inagaki, H.; Edahiro, A.; Ura, C.; Sugiyama, M.; Miyamae, F.; Watanabe, Y.; et al. Normative Data of the Trail Making Test Among Urban Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Japan. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2022, 14, 832158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Morton, N.A. The PEDro Scale Is a Valid Measure of the Methodological Quality of Clinical Trials: A Demographic Study. Aust. J. Physiother. 2009, 55, 129–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maher, C.G.; Sherrington, C.; Herbert, R.D.; Moseley, A.M.; Elkins, M. Reliability of the PEDro Scale for Rating Quality of Randomized Controlled Trials. Phys. Ther. 2003, 83, 713–721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Yamato, T.P.; Maher, C.; Koes, B.; Moseley, A. The PEDro Scale Had Acceptably High Convergent Validity, Construct Validity, and Interrater Reliability in Evaluating Methodological Quality of Pharmaceutical Trials. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2017, 86, 176–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ramirez-Campillo, R.; Castillo, D.; Raya-González, J.; Moran, J.; de Villarreal, E.S.; Lloyd, R.S. Effects of Plyometric Jump Training on Jump and Sprint Performance in Young Male Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2020, 50, 2125–2143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ramirez-Campillo, R.; Sánchez, J.; Romero-Moraleda, B.; Javier, Y.; García-Hermoso, A.; Clemente, F. Effects of Plyometric Jump Training in Female Soccer Player’s Vertical Jump Height: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. J. Sports Sci. 2020, 38, 1475–1487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stojanović, E.; Ristić, V.; McMaster, D.T.; Milanović, Z. Effect of Plyometric Training on Vertical Jump Performance in Female Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2017, 47, 975–986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valentine, J.; Pigott, T.; Rothstein, H. How Many Studies Do You Need? A Primer on Statistical Power for Meta-Analysis. J. Ed. Behav. Stat. 2010, 35, 215–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pigott, T. Advances in Meta-Analysis; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2012; ISBN 978-1-4614-2277-8. [Google Scholar]
- García-Hermoso, A.; Ramírez-Campillo, R.; Izquierdo, M. Is Muscular Fitness Associated with Future Health Benefits in Children and Adolescents? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies. Sports Med. 2019, 49, 1079–1094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moran, J.; Ramirez-Campillo, R.; Granacher, U. Effects of Jumping Exercise on Muscular Power in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2018, 48, 2843–2857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kontopantelis, E.; Springate, D.A.; Reeves, D. A Re-Analysis of the Cochrane Library Data: The Dangers of Unobserved Heterogeneity in Meta-Analyses. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e69930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hopkins, W.G.; Marshall, S.W.; Batterham, A.M.; Hanin, J. Progressive Statistics for Studies in Sports Medicine and Exercise Science. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2009, 41, 3–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Higgins, J.P.T.; Thompson, S.G. Quantifying Heterogeneity in a Meta-Analysis. Stat. Med. 2002, 21, 1539–1558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Egger, M.; Davey Smith, G.; Schneider, M.; Minder, C. Bias in Meta-Analysis Detected by a Simple, Graphical Test. BMJ 1997, 315, 629–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sterne, J.A.C.; Sutton, A.J.; Ioannidis, J.P.A.; Terrin, N.; Jones, D.R.; Lau, J.; Carpenter, J.; Rücker, G.; Harbord, R.M.; Schmid, C.H.; et al. Recommendations for Examining and Interpreting Funnel Plot Asymmetry in Meta-Analyses of Randomised Controlled Trials. BMJ 2011, 343, d4002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Duval, S.; Tweedie, R. Trim and Fill: A Simple Funnel-Plot-Based Method of Testing and Adjusting for Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis. Biometrics 2000, 56, 455–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shi, L.; Lin, L. The Trim-and-Fill Method for Publication Bias: Practical Guidelines and Recommendations Based on a Large Database of Meta-Analyses. Medicine 2019, 98, e15987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leyland, L.-A.; Spencer, B.; Beale, N.; Jones, T.; van Reekum, C.M. The Effect of Cycling on Cognitive Function and Well-Being in Older Adults. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0211779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arnold, J.T.; Bruce-Low, S.; Sammut, L. The Impact of 12 Weeks Walking Football on Health and Fitness in Males over 50 Years of Age. BMJ Open. Sport Exerc. Med. 2015, 1, bmjsem 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Harper, L.D.; Field, A.; Corr, L.D.; Naughton, R.J. The Physiological, Physical, and Biomechanical Demands of Walking Football: Implications for Exercise Prescription and Future Research in Older Adults. J. Aging Phys. Act. 2019, 478–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dai, C.-T.; Chang, Y.-K.; Huang, C.-J.; Hung, T.-M. Exercise Mode and Executive Function in Older Adults: An ERP Study of Task-Switching. Brain Cogn. 2013, 83, 153–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Daly, M.; McMinn, D.; Allan, J.L. A Bidirectional Relationship between Physical Activity and Executive Function in Older Adults. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2014, 8, 1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Engeroff, T.; Vogt, L.; Fleckenstein, J.; Füzéki, E.; Matura, S.; Pilatus, U.; Schwarz, S.; Deichmann, R.; Hellweg, R.; Pantel, J.; et al. Lifespan Leisure Physical Activity Profile, Brain Plasticity and Cognitive Function in Old Age. Aging Ment. Health 2019, 23, 811–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baddeley, A. Working Memory. Science 1992, 255, 556–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Friedman, N.P.; Miyake, A. The Relations Among Inhibition and Interference Control Functions: A Latent-Variable Analysis. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 2004, 133, 101–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Marie-Ludivine, C.-D.; Papouin, G.; Saint-Val, P.; Lopez, A. Effect of Adapted Karate Training on Quality of Life and Body Balance in 50-Year-Old Men. Open. Access. J. Sport. Med. 2010, 1, 143–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schoene, D.; Lord, S.R.; Delbaere, K.; Severino, C.; Davies, T.A.; Smith, S.T. A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study of Home-Based Step Training in Older People Using Videogame Technology. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e57734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Eggenberger, P.; Wolf, M.; Schumann, M.; de Bruin, E.D. Exergame and Balance Training Modulate Prefrontal Brain Activity during Walking and Enhance Executive Function in Older Adults. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2016, 8, 66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chuang, L.-Y.; Hung, H.-Y.; Huang, C.-J.; Chang, Y.-K.; Hung, T.-M. A 3-Month Intervention of Dance Dance Revolution Improves Interference Control in Elderly Females: A Preliminary Investigation. Exp. Brain Res. 2015, 233, 1181–1188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schoene, D.; Valenzuela, T.; Toson, B.; Delbaere, K.; Severino, C.; Garcia, J.; Davies, T.A.; Russell, F.; Smith, S.T.; Lord, S.R. Interactive Cognitive-Motor Step Training Improves Cognitive Risk Factors of Falling in Older Adults-A Randomized Controlled Trial. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0145161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wollesen, B.; Schulz, S.; Seydell, L.; Delbaere, K. Does Dual Task Training Improve Walking Performance of Older Adults with Concern of Falling? BMC Geriatr. 2017, 17, 213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alesi, M.; Bianco, A.; Luppina, G.; Palma, A.; Pepi, A. Improving Children’s Coordinative Skills and Executive Functions: The Effects of a Football Exercise Program. Percept. Mot. Ski. 2016, 122, 27–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gatz, J.; Kelly, A.M.; Clark, S.L. Improved Executive Function and Science Achievement for At-Risk Middle School Girls in an Aerobic Fitness Program. J. Early Adolesc. 2018, 1–17, 453–469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kadri, A.; Slimani, M.; Bragazzi, N.L.; Tod, D.; Azaiez, F. Effect of Taekwondo Practice on Cognitive Function in Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Diamond, A. Activities and Programs That Improve Children’s Executive Functions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2012, 21, 335–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Musculus, L.; Lautenbach, F.; Knöbel, S.; Reinhard, M.L. An Assist for Cognitive Diagnostics in Soccer: Two Valid Tasks Measuring Inhibition and Cognitive Flexibility in a Soccer-Specific Setting With a Soccer-Specific Motor Response. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacobson, J.; Matthaeus, L. Athletics and Executive Functioning: How Athletic Participation and Sport Type Correlate with Cognitive Performance. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2014, 15, 521–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Formenti, D.; Trecroci, A.; Duca, M.; Cavaggioni, L.; Angelo, F.D.; Passi, A.; Longo, S.; Alberti, G. Differences in Inhibitory Control and Motor Fitness in Children Practicing Open and Closed Skill Sports. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 4033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, C.-J.; Lin, P.-C.; Hung, C.-L.; Chang, Y.-K.; Hung, T.-M. Type of Physical Exercise and Inhibitory Function in Older Adults: An Event-Related Potential Study. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2014, 15, 205–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Temprado, J.J.; Julien-Vintrou, M.; Loddo, E.; Laurin, J.K.; Sleimen-Malkoun, R. Cognitive functioning enhancement in older adults: Is there an advantage of multicomponent training over Nordic walking? Clin. Interv. Aging 2019, 14, 1503–1514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
PICOS | Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria |
---|---|---|
Population | Healthy older adults (mean age of the sample ≥60 years), without restriction according to sex or fitness level. | Children, adolescents, or middle-aged adults. Individuals with a medical condition that may limit their participation in sport-based activities, meaning that they must not have any neurological pathology, psychiatric disorder, or other types of medical conditions. Participants of paralympic sports or individuals with disabilities will not be included. |
Intervention | Chronic intervention programs (with a minimum duration of 4 weeks) based on a sport, of a competitive or recreational type. The interventions should involve sport exercises (e.g., soccer) or sport-based or sport-adapted exercises (e.g., walking soccer). | Acute interventions. Chronic sports interventions combined with different types of exercises (for example, aerobics or resistance training) or with the support of a nutritional supplement. Chronic interventions not related to sports. |
Comparator | Group not exposed to the sports training program. The control group may be active (alternative training method such as a balance or stretching program) or passive (continuing their usual activities of daily living). | Absence of a control group. |
Outcome | Pre-/postintervention values for one or more direct assessment measures for executive functions of working memory, inhibition, or cognitive flexibility. | Indirect measures of executive functions (e.g., questionary). Measures of executive functions other than working memory, inhibition, or cognitive flexibility. |
Study design | Longitudinal studies with at least one experimental group and control group, including pre- and postintervention measurements. | Cross-sectional studies; single-group interventions. |
References | Country | N | Sex (M/F) | Age (years) | Education (years) | Health Status | Cognitive Status | Level of Physical Activity | Experience with Sports |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albinet et al., 2016 [49] | France | 36; EG: 19, CG: 17 | 10 M/26 F | EG: 67 ± 5, CG: 66 ± 5 | EG: 11.89 ± 3.87; CG: 11.59 ± 2.12 | Healthy | MMSE EG: 29.11 ± 1.05, CG: 28.74 ± 1.50; | PASD EG: 14.89 ± 4.82, CG: 16.12 ± 4.26 | Not reported |
Tsai et al., 2017 [50] | China | 43; EG: 22, CG: 21 | 43 M | EG: 66.88 ± 4.74, CG: 65.70 ± 3.54 | EG: 12.50 ± 4.09; CG: 10.62 ± 3.20 | Healthy | MMSE EG: 28.73 ± 1.28, CG: 27.67 ± 1.80 | Sedentary | No regular participation in exercise or sports in the previous 3 months |
Reddy et al., 2017 [54] | United Kingdom | 20; EG: 11, CG: 9 | 17 M/3 F | Mean age EG: 61.1; mean age CG: 60.3 | Not reported | Healthy | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported |
Shimada et al., 2018 [51] | Japan | 106; EG: 53, CG: 53 | 57 M/49 F | EG: 70.1 ± 4.0; CG: 70.7 ± 4.7 | EG: 12.8 ± 2.8; CG: 13.7 ± 2.6 | Healthy. Subjects with a history of stroke were included, n (%) GE: 5 (9.4), CG: 1 (1.9) | MMSE EG: 28.4 ± 1.8, CG: 28.7 ± 1.4 | Sedentary and mild-to-moderate habitual exercise, n (%) EG: 26 (49.1), CG: 26 (49.1) | Those who played golf two or more times per year were excluded |
Leyland et al., 2019 [88] | United Kingdom | 62; EG: 36, CG: 26 | 23 M/39 F | EG: 63.03 ± 7.47; CG: 66.04 ± 8.84 | EG: 16.83 ± 3.89; CG: 15.94 ± 1.97 | Healthy | MMSE EG: 26.86 ± 1.90, CG: 27.58 ± 1.21 | PASE (SD) EG: 40.86 (24.84), CG: 35.23 (17.25) | No cycling practice in the last 5 years |
Pacheco et al., 2019 [44] | Brazil | 33; EG: 16, CG: 17 | 2 M/ 31 F | EG: 69.06 ± 7.40; CG: 68.35 ± 6.89 | EG: 13.88 ± 4.86; CG: 13.00 ± 4.53 | Healthy | MMSE EG: 26.94 ± 2.27, CG: 27.47 ± 2.10 | They did not exercise regularly. | No previous experience in Karate-Do |
Cho and Roh, 2019 [45] | Korea | 37; EG: 19, CG: 18 | 37 F | EG: 68.89 ± 4.16; 69.00 ± 4.41 | EG: 11.33 ± 2.47; CG: 11.37 ± 2.41 | Healthy | MMSE EG: 26.89 ± 1.81, CG: 26.74 ± 1.63 | They did not exercise regularly. | Not reported |
Jansen et al., 2012 [46] | Germany | 21; EG: 12; CG: 9 | 5 M/16 F | EG: 73.6 ± 3.9; CG: 82.7/6.6 | Not reported | Healthy | Normal | Not reported | Not reported |
Jansen et al., 2017 [48] | Germany | 40; EG: 23, CG: 17 | 14 M/25 F One person did not provide information on sex | EG: 62.57 ± 4.19; CG: 65.24 ± 4.66 | Not reported | Healthy | Normal | Not reported | Not reported |
References | Sport-like Training | Control Condition | Sport | Compliance with the Intervention Program | Length of Intervention | Weekly Frequency | Length of Session | Intensity | EF Tasks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albinet et al., 2016 [49] | Swimming. Warm-up for 10 min, core session for 40 min, and cool-down for 10 min. The program included activities such as different types of swimming and aquatic fitness exercises. | Stretching | Swimming | EG: 80.3%, CG: 76.5% | 21 weeks | 2/week | 60 min | 40–65% HRmax | Stroop task, random number generation task, Hayling task, spatial running span task, verbal running span task, 2-back task, dimension-switching task, plus–minus task, and digit–letter task |
Tsai et al., 2017 [50] | Table tennis. Warming up is the most important part of table tennis training, followed by playing games of table tennis with the coach and cooling down. Seven main components over the whole training session were as follows: (a) footwork; (b) serving; (c) forehand and backhand driving; (d) forehand bouncing, backhand bouncing, and alternate bouncing; (e) smashing; (f) continuously hitting back a ball that was randomly delivered by the ball-projection machine from fixed or random directions; and (g) comprehensive practice. | Balance and stretching | Table tennis | 90% ± 2% | 24 weeks | 3/week | 40 min | Not reported | Task switching paradigm; N-back task |
Reddy et al., 2017 [54] | Walking football. Warm-up, followed by 45–50 min of playing. A small-sided game of walking football, usually five-a-side. | Not reported | Walking football | Each EG participant participated in at least 7 sessions out of 12 (mean, 9.4; mode, 11) | 12 weeks | 1/week | 60 min | 76% HRmax; mean Borg RPE: 13.31 (range 9–17 on a scale of 0–20) | Random number generator task |
Shimada et al., 2018 [51] | Golf. A total of 14 practice sessions and 10 golf course sessions. (1) Practice sessions: warm-up and stretching exercises of 10 min; sessions 1–9, participants engaged in 70 min of Starting New at Golf training; sessions 7–14, participants practiced at a driving range followed by a 10 min cool-down period. (2) Course sessions: 10 min warm-up and stretching exercises, followed by a half round of golf (100 min) and a 10 min cool-down period. | Health education program | Golf | 96.2% attended at least 80% of sessions | 24 weeks | Not reported | 90–120 min | Not reported | Trail Making Test-Part B |
Leyland et al., 2019 [88] | Cycling. Outdoor cycling. Cycling was completed in the Reading and Oxford areas. | No exercise | Cycling | Not applicable because there was no fixed number of scheduled sessions | 8 weeks | 3/week | 30 min | Not reported | Verbal fluency, plus–minus task, letter updating task, Stroop task, stop-it task, and Eriksen flanker task |
Pacheco et al., 2019 [44] | Karate-Do. (1) brief warm-up of 5–10 min; (2) kihon exercises, kata (sequences of Karate-Do movements), kumite, and breathing techniques for 40-–45 min; and (3) relaxation through brief meditation exercises tailored to the needs of the participants for 10 min. | Daily activities | Karate-Do | Not reported | 12 weeks | 2/week | 60 min | Not reported | Digit span (backward), verbal phonemic fluency, verbal semantic fluency (animals), Trail Making Test-Part B |
Cho and Roh, 2019 [45] | Taekwondo. A total of 10 min of warm-up and cool-down through stretching, and 50 min of main exercise. Main exercise: 5 min of five basic TKD movements (stance, block, punch, strike, and thrust); 10 min of Poom-sae Taegeuk chapter 1–4, 10 min of kicking sessions with basic kicking, steps, and mitt kicks; and 15 min of Taekwon gymnastics. | Daily activities | Taekwondo | Not reported | 16 weeks | 5/week | 60 min | 50–80% HRmax | Stroop color and word test |
Jansen et al., 2012 [46] | Karate-Do. Training was conducted according to the guidelines of the German Karate Federation. Karate-Do involves powerful movements of the legs or arms (or both at the same time). Long sequences of arm and leg movements were taught. Every training session was led by a professional karate teacher. | Daily activities | Shotokan Karate-Do | Not reported | 3–6 months (20 training sessions) | Not reported | 60 min | Not reported | Digit backward; Block-tapping test |
Jansen et al., 2017 [48] | Karate-Do. Training was conducted according to the guidelines of the German Karate Federation. Participants practiced attacking and defending techniques with a partner. The emphasis was on cooperative training to ensure that both partners benefited from the training. Participants learned simultaneous leg and arm movements as well as training with a partner. In terms of Kata, participants learned the ‘‘Heian Shodan”. | Daily activities | Shotokan Karate-Do | Mean number of completed training sessions 13.26 ± 1.48 | 8 weeks (15 sessions) | 2/week | 60 min | Not reported | Stroop color–word interference test; digit backward |
Study | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Albinet et al., 2016 [49] | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 5 |
Tsai et al., 2017 [50] | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 6 |
Reddy et al., 2017 [54] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 6 |
Shimada et al., 2018 [51] | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 6 |
Leyland et al., 2019 [88] | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 5 |
Pacheco et al., 2019 [44] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 7 |
Cho and Roh, 2019 [45] | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 6 |
Jansen et al., 2012 [46] | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 5 |
Jansen et al., 2017 [48] | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 6 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Contreras-Osorio, F.; Ramirez-Campillo, R.; Cerda-Vega, E.; Campos-Jara, R.; Martínez-Salazar, C.; Araneda, R.; Ebner-Karestinos, D.; Arellano-Roco, C.; Campos-Jara, C. Effects of Sport-Based Exercise Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12573. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912573
Contreras-Osorio F, Ramirez-Campillo R, Cerda-Vega E, Campos-Jara R, Martínez-Salazar C, Araneda R, Ebner-Karestinos D, Arellano-Roco C, Campos-Jara C. Effects of Sport-Based Exercise Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12573. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912573
Chicago/Turabian StyleContreras-Osorio, Falonn, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo, Enrique Cerda-Vega, Rodrigo Campos-Jara, Cristian Martínez-Salazar, Rodrigo Araneda, Daniela Ebner-Karestinos, Cristián Arellano-Roco, and Christian Campos-Jara. 2022. "Effects of Sport-Based Exercise Interventions on Executive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12573. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912573