Exploring Factors That Affected Student Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of Data-Mining Approaches
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
Measures for Student Well-Being
2.2. Predictive Data-Mining Techniques
2.2.1. Methods Used for Classification
k-NN
Decision Tree
Random Forest
Logistic Regression
Support Vector Machines
Boosting Algorithms
2.2.2. Variable Selection and Importance
2.2.3. Performance Evaluation and Data-Mining Procedure
- Step 1. Data split. Both datasets (DM and DMI) were divided into training and testing at two different proportions (20% and 30%). First, the learners were trained with the training set, and then the classification performance of each learner was tested with the test set.
- Step 2. Variable selection. Firstly, a set was created with all of the variables handled in this study. Then, a two-step procedure was utilized. Variable importance scores and ranks were obtained using three different variable selection methods (the mutual information, the feature importance function, and SHAP). Note that each selection method has its own application ability. For example, the mutual information function only works with the full information; in other words, it cannot handle data with missing values. Therefore, the mutual information method was the only method used for the DM dataset. On the other hand, the feature importance function is performed with a prespecified learner. XGBoost, LightGBM, and CatBoost learners were used for the DM dataset. For the DMI dataset, XGBoost, LightGBM, CatBoost, AdaBoost, GBM, LR, and RF were used. Finally, as the last variable selection method, variable scores were obtained according to the different learners of the SHAP function. XGBoost, LightGBM, and CatBoost algorithms were used for the DM dataset and XGBoost, LightGBM, CatBoost, and GBM algorithms were used for the DMI dataset. The Borda count procedure was then applied in the rank aggregation. Thus, a list of variables from the most influential to the least influential was created. Then, the top 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 100% (all) of the variables were selected as the inputs for the learners.
- Step 3. Classification. After variable selection, the classification step was achieved. Each learner had specific and different numbers of hyperparameters that had to be tuned. According to the predefined hyperparameter configuration search space, the composite procedure based on k-fold CV and GS was applied for each learner. Since the choice of the number of folds depended on different factors such as the training sample size and the number of tuning parameters, there was no strictly defined rule. However, as Jung [64] suggested, we set the fold number k at 5. The learning models were rerun on the testing data using the optimal hyperparameters and the results for their corresponding performance metrics were compared.
3. Results
3.1. The Student Well-Being Score
3.2. Classification
3.2.1. Classification Performed Using the DM Dataset
3.2.2. Classification Performed Using the DMI Dataset
3.3. Important Variables
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | n (Total) | Well-Being Score | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
DM | DMI | ||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
Burkina Faso | 2450 | 0.67 | 0.85 | −0.47 | 0.87 |
Denmark | 1308 | −0.47 | 0.73 | 0.03 | 0.87 |
Ethiopia | 3613 | 0.26 | 0.99 | 0.39 | 0.92 |
Kenya | 1594 | −0.01 | 0.83 | −0.23 | 0.89 |
Russian Federation | 3502 | −0.36 | 0.82 | 0.24 | 1.01 |
Slovenia | 2494 | −0.47 | 0.87 | −0.11 | 0.85 |
United Arab Emirates | 2849 | 0.01 | 0.86 | −0.35 | 0.82 |
Uzbekistan | 2910 | 0.15 | 0.76 | 0.15 | 0.77 |
Accuracy (%) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Variables (%) | 178 (100%) | 18 (10%) | 36 (20%) | 54 (30%) | 72 (40%) | |||||
Test Sample Size | 30% | 20% | 30% | 20% | 30% | 20% | 30% | 20% | 30% | 20% |
CatBoost | 77.06 | 76.81 | 75.92 | 76.23 | 76.27 | 77.39 | 77.32 | 76.91 | 77.69 | 77.58 |
LightGBM | 76.72 | 77.05 | 75.19 | 76.01 | 76.14 | 77.08 | 76.64 | 76.71 | 76.99 | 77.09 |
XGBoost | 75.85 | 75.85 | 74.79 | 75.09 | 75.42 | 76.09 | 76.45 | 76.83 | 76.59 | 76.30 |
Accuracy (%) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Variables (%) | 178 (100%) | 18 (10%) | 36 (20%) | 54 (30%) | 72 (40%) | |||||
Test Sample Size | 30% | 20% | 30% | 20% | 30% | 20% | 30% | 20% | 30% | 20% |
CatBoost | 77.93 | 77.80 | 75.60 | 75.41 | 76.88 | 76.86 | 77.48 | 76.91 | 77.64 | 77.65 |
LightGBM | 76.29 | 76.42 | 75.32 | 74.50 | 76.24 | 76.28 | 76.30 | 76.11 | 76.79 | 76.50 |
XGBoost | 76.51 | 74.83 | 73.83 | 73.46 | 76.24 | 76.23 | 76.63 | 76.09 | 76.42 | 76.86 |
GBM | 76.32 | 75.70 | 74.90 | 74.57 | 75.77 | 75.53 | 76.05 | 75.70 | 76.19 | 75.53 |
AdaBoost | 74.97 | 74.35 | 74.36 | 74.25 | 74.61 | 74.74 | 74.89 | 74.71 | 74.53 | 74.57 |
k-NN | 67.89 | 67.93 | 71.83 | 71.60 | 72.68 | 72.73 | 71.38 | 71.45 | 69.82 | 69.93 |
DT | 66.80 | 65.30 | 65.75 | 66.07 | 65.93 | 66.77 | 66.94 | 68.10 | 66.44 | 67.35 |
RF | 76.90 | 76.26 | 74.82 | 74.74 | 76.91 | 75.92 | 77.11 | 76.67 | 77.08 | 76.88 |
LR | 73.70 | 73.46 | 73.30 | 73.12 | 73.33 | 73.19 | 73.81 | 73.75 | 73.65 | 73.26 |
SVM | 76.54 | 76.47 | 75.02 | 75.07 | 76.45 | 76.16 | 76.54 | 76.26 | 76.42 | 76.52 |
Rank | Feature | Item |
---|---|---|
1 | IS1G27B | I worried a lot about catching COVID-19 at school. |
2 | IS1G22D | It became more difficult to know how well I was progressing. |
3 | IS1G27G | I was excited to catch up with friends. |
4 | IS1G30 | Overall, how prepared do you feel for learning from home if your school building closed for an extended period in the future? |
5 | IS1G27A | I was more motivated to learn when school reopened than at any other time. |
6 | IS1G22A | I learned about as much as before the COVID-19 disruption. |
7 | IS1G28A | I understood the changed arrangements in my school. |
8 | IS1G26B | Our family had to be more careful with money than usual. |
9 | IS1G23E | Health advice about COVID-19 |
10 | IS1G17F | I was happy to be at home. |
11 | IS1G26D | One or both of my parents/guardians were stressed about their job. |
12 | IS1G27C | I found it hard to manage the COVID-19 routines at school (e.g., wearing a mask, social distancing) |
13 | IS1G27E | I felt that I had fallen behind in my learning compared to other students. |
14 | IS1G28B | My teachers went over the work we did during the COVID-19 disruption. |
15 | IS1G27I | My teachers seemed more caring towards me than they were before the COVID-19 disruption. |
16 | IS1G23B | Looking after my personal safety |
17 | IS1G28C | We rushed through a lot of new schoolwork. |
18 | IS1G14G | I found it difficult to get extra or different types of work from my teachers. |
Rank | Feature | Item |
---|---|---|
1 | IS1G27B | I worried a lot about catching COVID-19 at school. |
2 | IS1G27A | I was more motivated to learn when school reopened than at any other time. |
3 | IS1G27G | I was excited to catch up with friends. |
4 | IS1G22D | It became more difficult to know how well I was progressing. |
5 | IS1G30 | Overall, how prepared do you feel for learning from home if your school building closed for an extended period in the future? |
6 | IS1G01 | Where did you attend school lessons during the COVID-19 disruption? |
7 | IS1G26B | Our family had to be more careful with money than usual. |
8 | IS1G27E | I felt that I had fallen behind in my learning compared to other students. |
9 | IS1G22A | I learned about as much as before the COVID-19 disruption. |
10 | IS1G27I | My teachers seemed more caring towards me than they were before the COVID-19 disruption. |
11 | IS1G28A | I understood the changed arrangements in my school. |
12 | IS1G17F | I was happy to be at home. |
13 | IS1G21G | My teachers encouraged me to learn. |
14 | IS1G27C | I found it hard to manage the COVID-19 routines at school (e.g., wearing a mask, social distancing) |
15 | IS1G26D | One or both of my parents/guardians were stressed about their job. |
16 | IS1G14G | I found it difficult to get extra or different types of work from my teachers. |
17 | IS1G28B | My teachers went over the work we did during the COVID-19 disruption. |
18 | IS1G21F | I had a good relationship with my teachers. |
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Share and Cite
Yürekli, H.; Yiğit, Ö.E.; Bulut, O.; Lu, M.; Öz, E. Exploring Factors That Affected Student Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of Data-Mining Approaches. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 11267. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811267
Yürekli H, Yiğit ÖE, Bulut O, Lu M, Öz E. Exploring Factors That Affected Student Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of Data-Mining Approaches. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(18):11267. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811267
Chicago/Turabian StyleYürekli, Hülya, Öyküm Esra Yiğit, Okan Bulut, Min Lu, and Ersoy Öz. 2022. "Exploring Factors That Affected Student Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of Data-Mining Approaches" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 18: 11267. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811267