Using Open-Access Data to Explore Relations between Urban Landscapes and Diarrhoeal Diseases in Côte d’Ivoire
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Datasets
2.2. Data Pre-Processing
2.3. Statistical Models and Feature Selection
2.4. Addressing Spatial Dependence
2.5. Inclusion Criteria and Stratification of Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Overall Clustering of Data and Need for Spatial Regressions
3.2. Significant Landscape Feature: Dense, Precarious Urban Areas
3.3. Stages of Urbanisation and Landscape Patterns
4. Discussion
4.1. Towards Spatial Predictors of Health Outcomes in Urban Areas
4.2. Saturation of Urban Settlements and Health Inequities
4.3. Study’s Limitations and Need for Further Research
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Computer Code and Software
Appendix A
Appendix B
Statistic | Prevalence of Diarrhoea (%) | Access to Basic 1 Water (%) | Access to Basic 1 Sanitation (%) | Women who Never Went to School (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Excluded obs. (n = 84) | Retained obs. (n = 267) | Excluded obs. (n = 84) | Retained obs. (n = 267) | Excluded obs. (n = 84) | Retained obs. (n = 267) | Excluded obs. (n = 84) | Retained obs. (n = 267) | |
Median value | 16.7 | 16.7 | 67.1 | 87.4 | 3.7 | 18.5 | 83.0 | 50.0 |
Mean value | 17.8 | 18.2 | 61.0 | 78.1 | 6.2 | 27.0 | 80.1 | 51.0 |
Standard deviation | 10.9 | 12.6 | 27.7 | 24.9 | 7.9 | 26.1 | 15.4 | 22.2 |
Minimum value | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 34.8 | 4.2 |
Maximum value | 42.9 | 56.3 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 33.3 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Appendix C
Location | Size and Category 1 | N° Clusters | Mean Prevalence of Diarrhoea 2 | Standard Deviation of Sample | Range (Min. and Max. Values) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abidjan | Large (“global connector”) | 48 | 21.4 | 13.8 | 0.0/54.5 |
Yamoussoukro | Medium (“global connector”) | 5 | 14.5 | 11.0 | 0.0/29.4 |
San Pédro | Medium (“global connector”) | 4 | 14.5 | 13.2 | 0.0/28.6 |
Bouaké | Medium-large (“regional connector”) | 16 | 12.1 | 9.4 | 0.0/33.3 |
Korhogo | Medium (“regional connector”) | 6 | 12.5 | 11.5 | 0.0/29.4 |
Daloa | Medium (“regional connector”) | 4 | 26.0 | 7.5 | 20.0/36.8 |
Katiola | Small (“local connector”) | 2 | 5.9 | 8.3 | 0.0/11.8 |
Douékoué | Small (“local connector”) | 1 | 43.8 | - | - |
Divo | Small (“local connector”) | 1 | 15.4 | - | - |
Appendix D
Pre-Selected Control Variables | Variance Inflation Factor | Weighted OLS (DHS Cluster Weights) R2 = 0.059/AIC = 46.45 Jarque-Bera Test for Normality of Errors: 31.090 (p < 0.001) Breusch-Pagan Test for Heteroskedasticity: 4.152 (p = 0.656) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. | SE | Prob. | ||
Constant | - | 0.448 | 0.079 | 0.000 |
% of the population with access to basic water facilities 1 | 1.468 | 0.074 | 0.067 | 0.270 |
% of the population with access to basic sanitation facilities 1 | 1.970 | −0.254 | 0.076 | 0.001 |
% of the population with access to safe hygiene facilities 1 | 1.363 | −0.034 | 0.054 | 0.535 |
% of the female population who never went to school | 1.744 | −0.261 | 0.079 | 0.001 |
Mean accumulated precipitation (monthly values) in 2012 | 1.260 | 0.049 | 0.063 | 0.436 |
Mean maximal temperature (monthly values) in 2012 | 1.165 | 0.0008 | 0.091 | 0.993 |
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Data Layer | Source | Description | Available Years | Spatial Resolution | Type |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Geolocation of DHS cluster | DHS | Cluster location with a geographic blur of 2 to 5 km | 1998/1999 2011/2012 | 2 to 5 km | Vector (shp 1) |
Cases of diarrhoea | DHS | Cases of diarrhoea (under-5), geocoded to cluster location | 1998/1999 2011/2012 | 2 to 5 km | Vector (table) |
Access to water and sanitation | DHS | Type of facility used by household, geocoded to cluster location | 1998/1999 2011/2012 | 2 to 5 km | Vector (table) |
Education attainment | DHS | Education attainment of women (15–49 years), geocoded to cluster location | 1998/1999 2011/2012 | 2 to 5 km | Vector (table) |
Climatic conditions | Terra-climate | Accumulated precipitation and mean temperature | 1958–2020 | 1/24th degr. (~4 km) | Raster |
Illumination (night lights) | NASA | Intensity of night illumination | 2012 & 2016 | 500 m | Raster |
Land use | ESA Land Cover CCI | Discrete categories of land cover | 1992–2019 | 300 m | Raster |
Population density | WorldPop | Estimated demographic densities (WorldPop’s model) | 2000–2020 | 100 m | Raster |
Roads | OpenStreetMap | Surveyed roads and pathways | 2019 | 5 to 20 m | Vector (shp 1) |
Variable | Role in Analysis | Aggregation Operation |
---|---|---|
Prevalence of diarrhoea, under −5 | Dependent variable | |
% access to basic 1 water | Control variable | |
% access to basic 1 sanitation | Control variable | |
% women 2 with no education | Control variable | |
Edge of land cover patches 3 | Independent variables | Total length (m) of edges of given land cover |
Shape index of land cover patches 3 | Independent variables | |
Proportion of land cover patches 3 | Independent variables | |
% dense urban areas | Independent variable | |
% precarious urban areas | Independent variable | |
Km of roads per urban area | Independent variable |
Included Features | Variance Inflation Factor | Unweighted OLS R2 = 0.06/AIC = −50.4 JB 2: 12.020 (p = 0.003) BP 3: 4.880 (p = 0.300) | Weighted OLS R2 = 0.129/AIC = 21.75 JB 2: 10.676 (p = 0.005) BP 3: 2.881 (p = 0.578) | Spatial Lag Pseudo R2 = 0.09/AIC = −56.3 JB 2: 11.407 (p = 0.003) BP 3: 5.807 (p = 0.214) | Spatial Error Pseudo R2 = 0.059/AIC = −58.2 JB 2: 11.859 (p = 0.003) BP 3: 4.693 (p = 0.320) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. | SE | Prob. | Coef. | SE | Prob. | Coef. | SE | Prob. | Coef. | SE | Prob. | ||
Constant | - | 0.426 | 0.070 | 0.000 | 0.460 | 0.066 | 0.000 | 0.297 | 0.076 | 0.000 | 0.366 | 0.073 | 0.000 |
% basic water | 1.372 | 0.001 | 0.063 | 0.986 | 0.014 | 0.062 | 0.820 | 0.032 | 0.061 | 0.606 | 0.049 | 0.064 | 0.439 |
% basic sanitation | 1.810 | −0.186 | 0.069 | 0.007 | −0.257 | 0.069 | 0.000 | −0.181 | 0.067 | 0.007 | −0.166 | 0.068 | 0.015 |
% women with no ed. | 1.674 | −0.141 | 0.075 | 0.061 | −0.221 | 0.076 | 0.004 | −0.123 | 0.073 | 0.092 | −0.108 | 0.074 | 0.148 |
Dense, prec. areas 1 | 1.074 | 0.257 | 0.081 | 0.002 | 0.291 | 0.062 | 0.000 | 0.227 | 0.081 | 0.005 | 0.275 | 0.094 | 0.004 |
Included Features | Variance Inflation Factor | Unweighted OLS R2 = 0.141/AIC = −14.04 JB 2: 4.316 (p = 0.116) BP 3: 4.444 (p = 0.349) | Weighted OLS R2 = 0.196/AIC = 23.56 JB 2: 6.395 (p = 0.041) BP 3: 7.101 (p = 0.131) | Spatial Lag Pseudo R2 = 0.141/AIC = −12.05 JB 2: 4.364 (p = 0.113) BP 3: 4.391 (p = 0.356) | Spatial Error Pseudo R2 = 0.141/AIC = −14.09 JB 2: 4.285 (p = 0.117) BP 3: 4.424 (p = 0.352) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. | SE | Prob. | Coef. | SE | Prob. | Coef. | SE | Prob. | Coef. | SE | Prob. | ||
Constant | - | 0.282 | 0.137 | 0.042 | 0.325 | 0.157 | 0.040 | 0.290 | 0.143 | 0.043 | 0.275 | 0.134 | 0.041 |
% basic water | 1.172 | 0.082 | 0.118 | 0.488 | 0.112 | 0.136 | 0.412 | 0.081 | 0.115 | 0.483 | 0.089 | 0.115 | 0.439 |
% basic sanitation | 1.769 | −0.168 | 0.107 | 0.119 | −0.252 | 0.107 | 0.021 | −0.167 | 0.105 | 0.111 | −0.168 | 0.105 | 0.110 |
% women with no ed. | 1.810 | −0.013 | 0.127 | 0.917 | −0.088 | 0.136 | 0.520 | −0.012 | 0.124 | 0.925 | −0.012 | 0.124 | 0.922 |
Dense, prec. areas 1 | 1.029 | 0.315 | 0.090 | 0.001 | 0.316 | 0.079 | 0.000 | 0.318 | 0.093 | 0.001 | 0.318 | 0.090 | 0.000 |
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Pessoa Colombo, V.; Chenal, J.; Koné, B.; Bosch, M.; Utzinger, J. Using Open-Access Data to Explore Relations between Urban Landscapes and Diarrhoeal Diseases in Côte d’Ivoire. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7677. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137677
Pessoa Colombo V, Chenal J, Koné B, Bosch M, Utzinger J. Using Open-Access Data to Explore Relations between Urban Landscapes and Diarrhoeal Diseases in Côte d’Ivoire. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(13):7677. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137677
Chicago/Turabian StylePessoa Colombo, Vitor, Jérôme Chenal, Brama Koné, Martí Bosch, and Jürg Utzinger. 2022. "Using Open-Access Data to Explore Relations between Urban Landscapes and Diarrhoeal Diseases in Côte d’Ivoire" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 13: 7677. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137677