Correlation between Population Density and COVID-19 Cases during the Third Wave in Malaysia: Effect of the Delta Variant
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Source
2.2. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of COVID-19 Cases in the Third Wave
3.2. Association between Sociodemographic Factors and Vaccination with COVID-19 Cases
3.3. Correlation between Population and Population Density with COVID-19 Cases
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Shapiro–Wilk, W | df | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Population | 0.570 | 145 | <0.001 |
Density | 0.427 | 145 | <0.001 |
COVID-19 cases pre-Delta variant | 0.422 | 145 | <0.001 |
COVID-19 cases during Delta variant | 0.471 | 145 | <0.001 |
Overall COVID-19 cases | 0.447 | 145 | <0.001 |
Appendix B
Appendix C
No | State | District | Population | Population Density (Person per sqft/km) | COVID-19 Cases | Incidence per 1000 Population | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Delta Variant Period | Delta Variant Period | Overall | Pre-Delta Variant Period | Delta Variant Period | Overall Study Period | |||||
1 | Johor | Batu Pahat | 488,800 | 249 | 4997 | 8572 | 13,569 | 10.2 | 17.5 | 27.8 |
2 | Johor Bahru | 1,621,400 | 1521 | 29,201 | 45,386 | 74,587 | 18.0 | 28.0 | 46.0 | |
3 | Kluang | 351,700 | 123 | 3258 | 9901 | 13,159 | 9.3 | 28.2 | 37.4 | |
4 | Kota Tinggi | 231,300 | 66 | 4062 | 5798 | 9860 | 17.6 | 25.1 | 42.6 | |
5 | Kulai | 294,800 | 390 | 8506 | 12,526 | 21,032 | 28.9 | 42.5 | 71.3 | |
6 | Mersing | 85,100 | 30 | 501 | 1701 | 2202 | 5.9 | 20.0 | 25.9 | |
7 | Muar | 288,900 | 207 | 7783 | 9658 | 17,441 | 26.9 | 33.4 | 60.4 | |
8 | Pontian | 183,100 | 196 | 3070 | 5051 | 8121 | 16.8 | 27.6 | 44.4 | |
9 | Segamat | 221,600 | 77 | 1768 | 3978 | 5746 | 8.0 | 18.0 | 25.9 | |
10 | Tangkak | 159,800 | 164 | 2355 | 4088 | 6443 | 14.7 | 25.6 | 40.3 | |
11 | Kedah | Baling | 158,700 | 104 | 968 | 8225 | 9193 | 6.1 | 51.8 | 57.9 |
12 | Bandar Baharu | 49,300 | 182 | 521 | 2314 | 2835 | 10.6 | 46.9 | 57.5 | |
13 | Kota Setar | 423,400 | 1008 | 6477 | 15,779 | 22,256 | 15.3 | 37.3 | 52.6 | |
14 | Kuala Muda | 527,900 | 578 | 7700 | 28,286 | 35,986 | 14.6 | 53.6 | 68.2 | |
15 | Kubang Pasu | 257,800 | 273 | 1901 | 5523 | 7424 | 7.4 | 21.4 | 28.8 | |
16 | Kulim | 334,100 | 432 | 2657 | 23,071 | 25,728 | 8.0 | 69.1 | 77.0 | |
17 | Langkawi | 113,100 | 215 | 325 | 4307 | 4632 | 2.9 | 38.1 | 41.0 | |
18 | Padang Terap | 74,100 | 55 | 275 | 1556 | 1831 | 3.7 | 21.0 | 24.7 | |
19 | Pendang | 111,600 | 177 | 495 | 4034 | 4529 | 4.4 | 36.1 | 40.6 | |
20 | Sik | 79,400 | 49 | 218 | 1999 | 2217 | 2.7 | 25.2 | 27.9 | |
21 | Yan | 80,000 | 325 | 443 | 1736 | 2179 | 5.5 | 21.7 | 27.2 | |
22 | Kelantan | Bachok | 169,100 | 607 | 2417 | 7008 | 9425 | 14.3 | 41.4 | 55.7 |
23 | Gua Musang | 118,700 | 15 | 554 | 3690 | 4244 | 4.7 | 31.1 | 35.8 | |
24 | Jeli | 53,000 | 40 | 701 | 1970 | 2671 | 13.2 | 37.2 | 50.4 | |
25 | Kota Bharu | 620,500 | 1541 | 13,993 | 21,099 | 35,092 | 22.6 | 34.0 | 56.6 | |
26 | Kuala Krai | 140,500 | 62 | 967 | 2545 | 3512 | 6.9 | 18.1 | 25.0 | |
27 | Machang | 118,200 | 225 | 1696 | 2496 | 4192 | 14.3 | 21.1 | 35.5 | |
28 | Pasir Mas | 241,100 | 423 | 4442 | 7155 | 11,597 | 18.4 | 29.7 | 48.1 | |
29 | Pasir Puteh | 148,900 | 352 | 1889 | 6901 | 8790 | 12.7 | 46.3 | 59.0 | |
30 | Tanah Merah | 155,100 | 176 | 2437 | 5247 | 7684 | 15.7 | 33.8 | 49.5 | |
31 | Tumpat | 194,700 | 1083 | 3273 | 7468 | 10,741 | 16.8 | 38.4 | 55.2 | |
32 | Melaka | Alor Gajah | 215,100 | 319 | 4100 | 9164 | 13,264 | 19.1 | 42.6 | 61.7 |
33 | Jasin | 158,800 | 234 | 4103 | 5237 | 9340 | 25.8 | 33.0 | 58.8 | |
34 | Melaka Tengah | 586,600 | 1634 | 8299 | 20,605 | 28,904 | 14.1 | 35.1 | 49.3 | |
35 | Negeri Sembilan | Jelebu | 45,700 | 34 | 1083 | 756 | 1839 | 23.7 | 16.5 | 40.2 |
36 | Jempol | 133,200 | 90 | 1249 | 3003 | 4252 | 9.4 | 22.5 | 31.9 | |
37 | Kuala Pilah | 75,200 | 73 | 1949 | 2227 | 4176 | 25.9 | 29.6 | 55.5 | |
38 | Port Dickson | 131,800 | 226 | 4032 | 5072 | 9104 | 30.6 | 38.5 | 69.1 | |
39 | Rembau | 49,400 | 122 | 2142 | 2498 | 4640 | 43.4 | 50.6 | 93.9 | |
40 | Seremban | 631,000 | 662 | 28,345 | 33,309 | 61,654 | 44.9 | 52.8 | 97.7 | |
41 | Tampin | 96,400 | 113 | 754 | 1647 | 2401 | 7.8 | 17.1 | 24.9 | |
42 | Pahang | Bentong | 136,800 | 75 | 2106 | 4651 | 6757 | 15.4 | 34.0 | 49.4 |
43 | Bera | 113,500 | 51 | 405 | 1770 | 2175 | 3.6 | 15.6 | 19.2 | |
44 | Cameron Highlands | 44,100 | 62 | 215 | 1017 | 1232 | 4.9 | 23.1 | 27.9 | |
45 | Jerantut | 106,800 | 14 | 951 | 1979 | 2930 | 8.9 | 18.5 | 27.4 | |
46 | Kuantan | 536,800 | 181 | 4367 | 19,542 | 23,909 | 8.1 | 36.4 | 44.5 | |
47 | Lipis | 105,300 | 20 | 429 | 1301 | 1730 | 4.1 | 12.4 | 16.4 | |
48 | Maran | 136,600 | 71 | 560 | 1633 | 2193 | 4.1 | 12.0 | 16.1 | |
49 | Pekan | 131,300 | 35 | 398 | 1544 | 1942 | 3.0 | 11.8 | 14.8 | |
50 | Raub | 109,100 | 48 | 534 | 810 | 1344 | 4.9 | 7.4 | 12.3 | |
51 | Rompin | 137,100 | 26 | 329 | 1341 | 1670 | 2.4 | 9.8 | 12.2 | |
52 | Temerloh | 192,400 | 85 | 1299 | 5790 | 7089 | 6.8 | 30.1 | 36.8 | |
53 | Perak | Batang Padang | 131,900 | 73 | 807 | 6368 | 7175 | 6.1 | 48.3 | 54.4 |
54 | Hilir Perak | 157,700 | 199 | 3835 | 2990 | 6825 | 24.3 | 19.0 | 43.3 | |
55 | Hulu Perak | 105,200 | 16 | 751 | 1541 | 2292 | 7.1 | 14.6 | 21.8 | |
56 | Kampar | 109,400 | 163 | 365 | 2300 | 2665 | 3.3 | 21.0 | 24.4 | |
57 | Kerian | 199,300 | 221 | 1112 | 4153 | 5265 | 5.6 | 20.8 | 26.4 | |
58 | Kinta | 841,700 | 645 | 5926 | 19,322 | 25,248 | 7.0 | 23.0 | 30.0 | |
59 | Kuala Kangsar | 177,900 | 70 | 730 | 3701 | 4431 | 4.1 | 20.8 | 24.9 | |
60 | Larut Matang & Selama | 367,900 | 180 | 3780 | 11,225 | 15,005 | 10.3 | 30.5 | 40.8 | |
61 | Manjung | 258,400 | 221 | 3022 | 3983 | 7005 | 11.7 | 15.4 | 27.1 | |
62 | Muallim | 73,200 | 78 | 474 | 1664 | 2138 | 6.5 | 22.7 | 29.2 | |
63 | Perak Tengah | 114,300 | 89 | 340 | 1340 | 1680 | 3.0 | 11.7 | 14.7 | |
64 | Perlis | Kangar | 264,700 | 323 | 286 | 1803 | 2089 | 1.1 | 6.8 | 7.9 |
65 | Pulau Pinang | Barat Daya | 237,000 | 1356 | 7463 | 11,507 | 18,970 | 31.5 | 48.6 | 80.0 |
66 | Seberang Perai Selatan | 198,000 | 817 | 6052 | 14,223 | 20,275 | 30.6 | 71.8 | 102.4 | |
67 | Seberang Perai Tengah | 438,400 | 1844 | 7503 | 25,119 | 32,622 | 17.1 | 57.3 | 74.4 | |
68 | Seberang Perai Utara | 344,900 | 1288 | 4198 | 16,125 | 20,323 | 12.2 | 46.8 | 58.9 | |
69 | Timur Laut | 588,200 | 4653 | 8645 | 15,933 | 24,578 | 14.7 | 27.1 | 41.8 | |
70 | Sabah | Beaufort | 85,100 | 49 | 754 | 3098 | 3852 | 8.9 | 36.4 | 45.3 |
71 | Beluran | 135,300 | 25 | 285 | 1932 | 2217 | 2.1 | 14.3 | 16.4 | |
72 | Keningau | 222,700 | 63 | 2391 | 5170 | 7561 | 10.7 | 23.2 | 34.0 | |
73 | Kinabatangan | 200,600 | 30 | 1279 | 3079 | 4358 | 6.4 | 15.3 | 21.7 | |
74 | Kota Belud | 113,700 | 82 | 1576 | 3802 | 5378 | 13.9 | 33.4 | 47.3 | |
75 | Kota Kinabalu | 581,700 | 1659 | 14,174 | 23,651 | 37,825 | 24.4 | 40.7 | 65.0 | |
76 | Kota Marudu | 82,600 | 43 | 627 | 2882 | 3509 | 7.6 | 34.9 | 42.5 | |
77 | Kuala Penyu | 25,000 | 55 | 235 | 443 | 678 | 9.4 | 17.7 | 27.1 | |
78 | Kudat | 103,200 | 79 | 2016 | 2096 | 4112 | 19.5 | 20.3 | 39.8 | |
79 | Kunak | 81,500 | 72 | 1538 | 1243 | 2781 | 18.9 | 15.3 | 34.1 | |
80 | Lahad Datu | 263,100 | 35 | 6295 | 4081 | 10,376 | 23.9 | 15.5 | 39.4 | |
81 | Nabawan | 40,600 | 7 | 613 | 1091 | 1704 | 15.1 | 26.9 | 42.0 | |
82 | Papar | 171,000 | 135 | 2478 | 6085 | 8563 | 14.5 | 35.6 | 50.1 | |
83 | Penampang | 155,300 | 366 | 3706 | 9571 | 13,277 | 23.9 | 61.6 | 85.5 | |
84 | Pitas | 46,000 | 32 | 349 | 1810 | 2159 | 7.6 | 39.3 | 46.9 | |
85 | Putatan | 73,100 | 1808 | 2154 | 3461 | 5615 | 29.5 | 47.3 | 76.8 | |
86 | Ranau | 115,900 | 32 | 532 | 2259 | 2791 | 4.6 | 19.5 | 24.1 | |
87 | Sandakan | 518,200 | 229 | 7511 | 10,324 | 17,835 | 14.5 | 19.9 | 34.4 | |
88 | Semporna | 175,800 | 154 | 2656 | 653 | 3309 | 15.1 | 3.7 | 18.8 | |
89 | Sipitang | 46,000 | 17 | 359 | 2301 | 2660 | 7.8 | 50.0 | 57.8 | |
90 | Tambunan | 44,100 | 32 | 343 | 630 | 973 | 7.8 | 14.3 | 22.1 | |
91 | Tawau | 521,000 | 233 | 10,690 | 9118 | 19,808 | 20.5 | 17.5 | 38.0 | |
92 | Tenom | 70,000 | 29 | 245 | 1658 | 1903 | 3.5 | 23.7 | 27.2 | |
93 | Tongod | 44,900 | 4 | 81 | 1355 | 1436 | 1.8 | 30.2 | 32.0 | |
94 | Tuaran | 130,500 | 110 | 3176 | 8660 | 11,836 | 24.3 | 66.4 | 90.7 | |
95 | Sarawak | Asajaya | 37,900 | 125 | 272 | 1703 | 1975 | 7.2 | 44.9 | 52.1 |
96 | Bau | 62,200 | 70 | 556 | 4914 | 5470 | 8.9 | 79.0 | 87.9 | |
97 | Belaga | 44,500 | 2 | 357 | 1182 | 1539 | 8.0 | 26.6 | 34.6 | |
98 | Betong | 73,600 | 48 | 792 | 2129 | 2921 | 10.8 | 28.9 | 39.7 | |
99 | Bintulu | 229,300 | 115 | 7850 | 5867 | 13,717 | 34.2 | 25.6 | 59.8 | |
100 | Dalat | 23,300 | 26 | 391 | 337 | 728 | 16.8 | 14.5 | 31.2 | |
101 | Daro | 37,900 | 31 | 43 | 51 | 94 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 2.5 | |
102 | Julau | 18,700 | 11 | 691 | 302 | 993 | 37.0 | 16.1 | 53.1 | |
103 | Kanowit | 34,300 | 15 | 1526 | 590 | 2116 | 44.5 | 17.2 | 61.7 | |
104 | Kapit | 65,800 | 17 | 3440 | 1067 | 4507 | 52.3 | 16.2 | 68.5 | |
105 | Kuching | 711,500 | 475 | 7915 | 44,407 | 52,322 | 11.1 | 62.4 | 73.5 | |
106 | Lawas | 46,200 | 12 | 48 | 258 | 306 | 1.0 | 5.6 | 6.6 | |
107 | Limbang | 56,900 | 14 | 47 | 600 | 647 | 0.8 | 10.5 | 11.4 | |
108 | Lubok Antu | 33,100 | 11 | 207 | 794 | 1001 | 6.3 | 24.0 | 30.2 | |
109 | Lundu | 39,200 | 22 | 326 | 2825 | 3151 | 8.3 | 72.1 | 80.4 | |
110 | Maradong | 34,800 | 48 | 1422 | 2386 | 3808 | 40.9 | 68.6 | 109.4 | |
111 | Marudi | 76,900 | 25 | 158 | 101 | 259 | 2.1 | 1.3 | 3.4 | |
112 | Matu | 21,400 | 13 | 233 | 166 | 399 | 10.9 | 7.8 | 18.6 | |
113 | Miri | 356,900 | 69 | 6954 | 2883 | 9837 | 19.5 | 8.1 | 27.6 | |
114 | Mukah | 52,300 | 21 | 1656 | 1923 | 3579 | 31.7 | 36.8 | 68.4 | |
115 | Pakan | 18,500 | 20 | 759 | 761 | 1520 | 41.0 | 41.1 | 82.2 | |
116 | Samarahan | 102,700 | 252 | 1185 | 6443 | 7628 | 11.5 | 62.7 | 74.3 | |
117 | Saratok | 54,400 | 61 | 376 | 1504 | 1880 | 6.9 | 27.6 | 34.6 | |
118 | Sarikei | 67,400 | 68 | 1319 | 999 | 2318 | 19.6 | 14.8 | 34.4 | |
119 | Selangau | 27,400 | 7 | 1258 | 933 | 2191 | 45.9 | 34.1 | 80.0 | |
120 | Serian | 105,800 | 60 | 999 | 9253 | 10,252 | 9.4 | 87.5 | 96.9 | |
121 | Sibu | 288,000 | 129 | 12,107 | 7796 | 19,903 | 42.0 | 27.1 | 69.1 | |
122 | Simunjan | 46,900 | 21 | 112 | 2341 | 2453 | 2.4 | 49.9 | 52.3 | |
123 | Song | 24,500 | 6 | 1089 | 1216 | 2305 | 44.4 | 49.6 | 94.1 | |
124 | Sri Aman | 78,300 | 34 | 1446 | 2212 | 3658 | 18.5 | 28.3 | 46.7 | |
125 | Tatau | 36,900 | 7 | 947 | 1150 | 2097 | 25.7 | 31.2 | 56.8 | |
126 | Selangor | Gombak | 842,200 | 1290 | 24,411 | 47,832 | 72,243 | 29.0 | 56.8 | 85.8 |
127 | Hulu Langat | 1,413,100 | 1697 | 47,840 | 75,478 | 123,318 | 33.9 | 53.4 | 87.3 | |
128 | Hulu Selangor | 245,700 | 140 | 5566 | 11,592 | 17,158 | 22.7 | 47.2 | 69.8 | |
129 | Klang | 1,056,200 | 1672 | 50,417 | 76,162 | 126,579 | 47.7 | 72.1 | 119.8 | |
130 | Kuala Langat | 279,100 | 326 | 13,069 | 19,078 | 32,147 | 46.8 | 68.4 | 115.2 | |
131 | Kuala Selangor | 259,900 | 219 | 7791 | 11,624 | 19,415 | 30.0 | 44.7 | 74.7 | |
132 | Petaling | 2,223,300 | 4565 | 72,839 | 124,243 | 197,082 | 32.8 | 55.9 | 88.6 | |
133 | Sabak Bernam | 130,500 | 130 | 1285 | 2204 | 3489 | 9.8 | 16.9 | 26.7 | |
134 | Sepang | 265,600 | 482 | 16,667 | 18,872 | 35,539 | 62.8 | 71.1 | 133.8 | |
135 | Terengganu | Besut | 175,800 | 143 | 2745 | 3910 | 6655 | 15.6 | 22.2 | 37.9 |
136 | Dungun | 193,300 | 71 | 1049 | 6157 | 7206 | 5.4 | 31.9 | 37.3 | |
137 | Hulu Terengganu | 90,700 | 23 | 807 | 1550 | 2357 | 8.9 | 17.1 | 26.0 | |
138 | Kemaman | 216,100 | 85 | 202 | 5252 | 5454 | 0.9 | 24.3 | 25.2 | |
139 | Kuala Nerus | 157,900 | 397 | 928 | 3676 | 4604 | 5.9 | 23.3 | 29.2 | |
140 | Kuala Terengganu | 268,600 | 1278 | 1698 | 8905 | 10,603 | 6.3 | 33.2 | 39.5 | |
141 | Marang | 121,700 | 183 | 629 | 2804 | 3433 | 5.2 | 23.0 | 28.2 | |
142 | Setiu | 69,900 | 54 | 1060 | 2245 | 3305 | 15.2 | 32.1 | 47.3 | |
143 | Federal Territory | Kuala Lumpur | 1,910,700 | 7863 | 73,041 | 105,365 | 178,406 | 38.2 | 55.1 | 93.4 |
144 | Putrajaya | 94,600 | 2090 | 2147 | 3572 | 5719 | 22.7 | 37.8 | 60.5 | |
145 | Labuan | 103,100 | 1028 | 7601 | 1856 | 9457 | 73.7 | 18.0 | 91.7 |
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Factor | Crude Coefficients, B (95% CI) | p-Value | Adjusted Coefficients, B (95% CI) | Std. Error | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age 15 and above | 1222.87 (223.87, 2221.88) | 0.017 | |||
Vaccination | 674.60 (371.644, 977.555) | <0.001 | |||
Median household income (RM) | 11.58 (9.360, 13.788) | <0.001 | 4.88 (2.64, 7.114) | 1.132 | <0.001 |
Population density | 23.28 (20.152, 26.409) | <0.001 | 18.10 (14.305, 21.887) | 1.918 | <0.001 |
Absolute Population and COVID-19 Cases | Population Density and COVID-19 Cases | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Correlation (r) | p-Value | Correlation (r) | p-Value | |
Pre-Delta variant period | 0.785 | <0.001 * | 0.723 | <0.001 * |
Delta variant period | 0.864 | <0.001 * | 0.764 | <0.001 * |
Overall period | 0.871 | <0.001 * | 0.778 | <0.001 * |
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Md Iderus, N.H.; Lakha Singh, S.S.; Mohd Ghazali, S.; Yoon Ling, C.; Cia Vei, T.; Md Zamri, A.S.S.; Ahmad Jaafar, N.; Ruslan, Q.; Ahmad Jaghfar, N.H.; Gill, B.S. Correlation between Population Density and COVID-19 Cases during the Third Wave in Malaysia: Effect of the Delta Variant. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7439. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127439
Md Iderus NH, Lakha Singh SS, Mohd Ghazali S, Yoon Ling C, Cia Vei T, Md Zamri ASS, Ahmad Jaafar N, Ruslan Q, Ahmad Jaghfar NH, Gill BS. Correlation between Population Density and COVID-19 Cases during the Third Wave in Malaysia: Effect of the Delta Variant. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(12):7439. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127439
Chicago/Turabian StyleMd Iderus, Nuur Hafizah, Sarbhan Singh Lakha Singh, Sumarni Mohd Ghazali, Cheong Yoon Ling, Tan Cia Vei, Ahmed Syahmi Syafiq Md Zamri, Nadhar Ahmad Jaafar, Qistina Ruslan, Nur Huda Ahmad Jaghfar, and Balvinder Singh Gill. 2022. "Correlation between Population Density and COVID-19 Cases during the Third Wave in Malaysia: Effect of the Delta Variant" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 12: 7439. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127439