From Pre- and Probiotics to Post-Biotics: A Narrative Review †
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Gut Microbiota Composition and Main Functions
3.2. Pre-, Probiotics and Symbiotics
3.3. A New Concept among the “Bugs”: Postbiotics
3.3.1. Supernatants
3.3.2. Exopolysaccharides
3.3.3. Antioxidant Enzymes and “Bile Salts Hydrolase Case“
3.3.4. Cell Wall Components
3.3.5. SCFAs
3.3.6. Bacterial Lysates
3.3.7. Metabolites
3.4. Actual and Future Applications of Postbiotics
3.4.1. Immunomodulation and Anti-Cancer Effects
3.4.2. Anti-Infectious Effects
3.4.3. Metabolism Modulation and Anti-Atherosclerotic Effects
3.4.4. Detoxification and Wound Healing Effects
3.4.5. Functional Foods Preparation
3.4.6. Future Perspectives and the COVID-19 Issue
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Rinninella, E.; Raoul, P.; Cintoni, M.; Franceschi, F.; Miggiano, G.A.D.; Gasbarrini, A.; Mele, M.C. What Is the Healthy Gut Microbiota Composition? A Changing Ecosystem across Age, Environment, Diet, and Diseases. Microorganisms 2019, 7, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Butel, M.-J.; Waligora-Dupriet, A.-J.; Wydau-Dematteis, S. The developing gut microbiota and its consequences for health. J. Dev. Orig. Health Dis. 2018, 9, 590–597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Preveden, T.; Scarpellini, E.; Milić, N.; Luzza, F.; Abenavoli, L. Gut microbiota changes and chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2017, 11, 813–819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Scarpellini, E.; Basilico, M.; Rinninella, E.; Carbone, F.; Schol, J.; Rasetti, C.; Abenavoli, L.; Santori, P. Probiotics and gut health. Minerva Gastroenterol. 2021, in press.
- Jia, W.; Xie, G.; Jia, W. Bile acid–microbiota crosstalk in gastrointestinal inflammation and carcinogenesis. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2017, 15, 111–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Daniali, M.; Nikfar, S.; Abdollahi, M. Antibiotic resistance propagation through probiotics. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 2020, 16, 1207–1215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kiewicz, J.; Marzec, A.; Ruszczyński, M.; Feleszko, W. Postbiotics-A Step Beyond Pre- and Probiotics. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2189. [Google Scholar]
- Liberati, A.; Altman, D.G.; Tetzlaff, J.; Mulrow, C.; Gøtzsche, P.C.; Ioannidis, J.P.; Clarke, M.; Devereaux, P.J.; Kleijnen, J.; Moher, D. The PRISMA Statement for Reporting Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses of Studies That Evaluate Health Care Interventions: Explanation and Elaboration. Zoonoses Public Health 2009, 6, e1000100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arumugam, M.; Raes, J.; Pelletier, E.; Le Paslier, D.; Yamada, T.; Mende, D.R.; Fernandes, G.R.; Tap, J.; Bruls, T.; Batto, J.M.; et al. Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. Nature 2011, 473, 174–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qin, J.; Li, R.; Raes, J.; Arumugam, M.; Burgdorf, K.S.; Manichanh, C.; Nielsen, T.; Pons, N.; Levenez, F.; Yamada, T.; et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 2010, 464, 59–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tap, J.; Mondot, S.; Levenez, F.; Pelletier, E.; Caron, C.; Furet, J.-P.; Ugarte, E.; Muñoz-Tamayo, R.; Paslier, D.L.E.; Nalin, R.; et al. Towards the human intestinal microbiota phylogenetic core. Environ. Microbiol. 2009, 11, 2574–2584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhuang, L.; Chen, H.; Zhang, S.; Zhuang, J.; Li, Q.; Feng, Z. Intestinal Microbiota in Early Life and Its Implications on Childhood Health. Genom. Proteom. Bioinform. 2019, 17, 13–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yatsunenko, T.; Rey, F.E.; Manary, M.J.; Trehan, I.; Dominguez-Bello, M.G.; Contreras, M.; Magris, M.; Hidalgo, G.; Baldassano, R.N.; Anokhin, A.P.; et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature 2012, 486, 222–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Biagi, E.; Franceschi, C.; Rampelli, S.; Severgnini, M.; Ostan, R.; Turroni, S.; Consolandi, C.; Quercia, S.; Scurti, M.; Monti, D.; et al. Gut Microbiota and Extreme Longevity. Curr. Biol. 2016, 26, 1480–1485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rooks, M.G.; Garrett, W.S. Gut microbiota, metabolites and host immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2016, 16, 341–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maynard, C.L.; Elson, C.O.; Hatton, R.D.; Weaver, C.T. Reciprocal interactions of the intestinal microbiota and immune system. Nature 2012, 489, 231–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abenavoli, L.; Scarpellini, E.; Colica, C.; Boccuto, L.; Salehi, B.; Sharifi-Rad, J.; Aiello, V.; Romano, B.; De Lorenzo, A.; Izzo, A.A.; et al. Gut Microbiota and Obesity: A Role for Probiotics. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Li, H.-Y.; Zhou, D.-D.; Gan, R.-Y.; Huang, S.-Y.; Zhao, C.-N.; Shang, A.; Xu, X.-Y.; Li, H.-B. Effects and Mechanisms of Probiotics, Prebiotics, Synbiotics, and Postbiotics on Metabolic Diseases Targeting Gut Microbiota: A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2021, 13, 3211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vallianou, N.; Stratigou, T.; Christodoulatos, G.S.; Tsigalou, C.; Dalamaga, M. Probiotics, Prebiotics, Synbiotics, Postbiotics, and Obesity: Current Evidence, Controversies, and Perspectives. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2020, 9, 179–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salminen, S.; Collado, M.C.; Endo, A.; Hill, C.; Lebeer, S.; Quigley, E.M.M.; Sanders, M.E.; Shamir, R.; Swann, J.R.; Szajewska, H.; et al. The International Scientific Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of postbiotics. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021, 18, 649–667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tsilingiri, K.; Rescigno, M. Postbiotics: What else? Benef. Microbes 2013, 4, 101–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aguilar-Toalá, J.E.; Arioli, S.; Behare, P.; Belzer, C.; Canani, R.B.; Chatel, J.-M.; D’Auria, E.; de Freitas, M.Q.; Elinav, E.; Esmerino, E.A.; et al. Postbiotics—When simplification fails to clarify. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021, 18, 825–826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amaretti, A.; di Nunzio, M.; Pompei, A.; Raimondi, S.; Rossi, M.; Bordoni, A. Antioxidant properties of potentially probiotic bacteria: In vitro and in vivo activities. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2012, 97, 809–817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khodaii, Z.; Ghaderian, S.M.H.; Natanzi, M.M. Probiotic Bacteria and their Supernatants Protect Enterocyte Cell Lines from Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) Invasion. Int. J. Mol. Cell. Med. 2017, 6, 183–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Izuddin, W.I.; Loh, T.C.; Foo, H.L.; Samsudin, A.A.; Humam, A.M. Postbiotic L. plantarum RG14 improves ruminal epithelium growth, immune status and upregulates the intestinal barrier function in post-weaning lambs. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- West, C.; Stanisz, A.M.; Wong, A.; Kunze, W.A. Effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae or boulardii yeasts on acute stress induced intestinal dysmotility. World J. Gastroenterol. 2016, 22, 10532–10544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canonici, A.; Siret, C.; Pellegrino, E.; Pontier-Bres, R.; Pouyet, L.; Montero, M.P.; Colin, C.; Czerucka, D.; Rigot, V.; Andre, F. Saccharomyces boulardii improves intestinal cell restitution through activation of the alpha2beta1 integrin collagen receptor. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e18427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Singh, P.; Saini, P. Food and Health Potentials of Exopolysaccharides Derived from Lactobacilli. Microbiol. Res. J. Int. 2017, 22, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Makino, S.; Sato, A.; Goto, A.; Nakamura, M.; Ogawa, M.; Chiba, Y.; Hemmi, J.; Kano, H.; Takeda, K.; Okumura, K.; et al. Enhanced natural killer cell activation by exopolysaccharides derived from yogurt fermented with Lactobacilli delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus OLL1073R-1. J. Dairy Sci. 2016, 99, 915–923. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lei, X.; Zhang, H.; Hu, Z.; Liang, Y.; Guo, S.; Yang, M.; Du, R.; Wang, X. Immunostimulatory activity of exopolysaccharides from probiotic Lactobacilli casei WXD030 strain as a novel adjuvant in vitro and in vivo. Food Agric. Immunol. 2018, 29, 1086–1105. [Google Scholar]
- Li, W.; Ji, J.; Chen, X.; Jiang, M.; Rui, X.; Dong, M. Structural elucidation and antioxidant activities of exopolysaccharides from Lactobacilli helveticus MB2-1. Carbohydr. Polym. 2014, 102, 351–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khalil, E.S.; Abd Manap, M.Y.; Mustafa, S.; Alhelli, A.M.; Shokryazdan, P. Probiotic Properties of Exopolysaccharide-Producing Lactobacilli Strains Isolated from Tempoyak. Mol. 2018, 23, 398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Uchida, M.; Ishii, I.; Inoue, C.; Akisato, Y.; Watanabe, K.; Hosoyama, S.; Toida, T.; Ariyoshi, N.; Kitada, M. Kefiran reduces atherosclerosis in rabbits fed a high cholesterol diet. J. Atheroscler. Thromb. 2010, 17, 980–988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Li, B.; Cai, Y.; Qi, C.; Hansen, R.; Ding, C.; Mitchell, T.C.; Yan, J. Orally administered particulate beta-glucan modulates tu-mor-capturing dendritic cells and improves antitumor T-cell responses in cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 2010, 16, 5153–5164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vetvicka, V.; Vetvickova, J. Glucan supplementation enhances the immune response against an influenza challenge in mice. Ann. Transl. Med. 2015, 3, 22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garai-Ibabe, G.; Dueñas, M.; Irastorza, A.; Sierra-Filardi, E.; Werning, M.; López, P.; Corbi, A.; Palencia, P. Naturally occurring 2-substituted (1,3)—D-glucan producing Lactobacilli suebicus and Pediococcus parvulus strains with potential utility in the production of functional foods. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 9254–9263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Morifuji, M.; Ichikawa, S.; Kitade, M.; Fukasawa, T.; Asami, Y.; Manabe, Y.; Sugawara, T. Exopolysaccharides from milk fermented by lactic acid bacteria enhance dietary carotenoid bioavailability in humans in a randomized crossover trial and in rats. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2020, 111, 903–914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jesenak, M.; Urbancek, S.; Majtan, J.; Banovcin, P.; Hercogova, J. Beta-Glucan-based cream (containing pleuran isolated from pleurotus ostreatus) in supportive treatment of mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis. J. Dermatol. Treat. 2016, 27, 351–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kullisaar, T.; Zilmer, M.; Mikelsaar, M.; Vihalemm, T.; Annuk, H.; Kairane, C.; Kilk, A. Two antioxidative lactobacilli strains as promising probiotics. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2002, 72, 215–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, H.S.; Chae, H.S.; Jeong, S.G.; Ham, J.S.; Im, S.K.; Ahn, C.N.; Lee, J.M. In vitro Antioxidative Properties of Lactobacilli. Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2005, 19, 262–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Izuddin, W.I.; Humam, A.M.; Loh, T.C.; Foo, H.L.; Samsudin, A.A. Dietary Postbiotic Lactobacilli plantarum Improves Serum and Ruminal Antioxidant Activity and Upregulates Hepatic Antioxidant Enzymes and Ruminal Barrier Function in Post-Weaning Lambs. Antioxidants 2020, 9, 250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- LeBlanc, J.G.; del Carmen, S.; Miyoshi, A.; Azevedo, V.; Sesma, F.; Langella, P.; Bermúdez-Humarán, L.G.; Watterlot, L.; Perdigon, G.; LeBlanc, A.D.M.D. Use of superoxide dismutase and catalase producing lactic acid bacteria in TNBS induced Crohn’s disease in mice. J. Biotechnol. 2011, 151, 287–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moser, S.A.; Savage, D.C. Bile Salt Hydrolase Activity and Resistance to Toxicity of Conjugated Bile Salts Are Unrelated Properties in Lactobacilli. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67, 3476–3480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Allain, T.; Chaouch, S.; Thomas, M.; Travers, M.A.; Valle, I.; Langella, P.; Grellier, P.; Polack, B.; Florent, I.; Bermúdez-Humarán, L.G. Bile Salt Hydrolase Activities: A Novel Target to Screen Anti-Giardia Lactobacilli? Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Van Langevelde, P.; van Dissel, J.T.; Ravensbergen, E.; Appelmelk, B.J.; Schrijver, I.A.; Groeneveld, P.H. Antibiotic-induced release of lipoteichoic acid and peptidoglycan from Staphylococcus aureus: Quantitative measurements and biological reac-tivities. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1998, 42, 3073–3078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kaji, R.; Kiyoshima-Shibata, J.; Nagaoka, M.; Nanno, M.; Shida, K. Bacterial Teichoic Acids Reverse Predominant IL-12 Pro-duction Induced by Certain Lactobacilli Strains into Predominant IL-10 Production via TLR2-Dependent ERK Activation in Macrophages. J. Immunol. 2010, 184, 3505–3513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zadeh, M.; Khan, M.W.; Goh, Y.J.; Selle, K.; Owen, J.L.; Klaenhammer, T.; Mohamadzadeh, M. Induction of intestinal pro-inflammatory immune responses by lipoteichoic acid. J. Inflamm. 2012, 9, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schauber, J.; Gallo, R.L. Antimicrobial peptides and the skin immune defense system. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2009, 124, R13–R18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, Z.; MacLeod, D.T.; Di Nardo, A. Commensal Bacteria Lipoteichoic Acid Increases Skin Mast Cell Antimicrobial Activity against Vaccinia Viruses. J. Immunol. 2012, 189, 1551–1558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Okamoto, M.; Ohe, G.; Oshikawa, T.; Furuichi, S.; Nishikawa, H.; Tano, T.; Ahmed, S.; Yoshida, H.; Moriya, Y.; Saito, M.; et al. Enhancement of anti-cancer immunity by a lipoteichoic-acid-related molecule isolated from a penicillin-killed group A Streptococcus. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 2001, 50, 408–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lebeer, S.; Claes, I.J.J.; Vanderleyden, J. Anti-inflammatory potential of probiotics: Lipoteichoic acid makes a dierence. Trends Microbiol. 2012, 20, 5–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, C.; Kim, B.G.; Kim, J.H.; Chun, J.; Im, J.P.; Kim, J.S. Sodium butyrate inhibits the NF-kappa B signalling pathway and histone deacetylation, and attenuates experimental colitis in an IL-10 independent manner. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2017, 51, 47–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lührs, H.; Gerke, T.; Müller, J.G.; Melcher, R.; Schauber, J.; Boxberge, F.; Scheppach, W.; Menzel, T. Butyrate inhibits NF-kappa B activation in lamina propria macrophages of patients with ulcerative colitis. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 2002, 37, 458–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kasahara, K.; Krautkramer, K.A.; Org, E.; Romano, K.A.; Kerby, R.L.; Vivas, E.I.; Mehrabian, M.; Denu, J.M.; Bäckhed, F.; Lusis, A.J.; et al. Interactions between Roseburia intestinalis and diet modulate atherogenesis in a murine model. Nat. Microbiol. 2018, 3, 1461–1471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aoki, R.; Kamikado, K.; Suda, W.; Takii, H.; Mikami, Y.; Suganuma, N.; Hattori, M.; Koga, Y. A proliferative probiotic Bifidobacterium strain in the gut ameliorates progression of metabolic disorders via microbiota modulation and acetate eleva-tion. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 43522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Frost, G.; Sleeth, M.L.; Sahuri-Arisoylu, M.; Lizarbe, B.; Cerdan, S.; Brody, L.; Anastasovska, J.; Ghourab, S.; Hankir, M.; Zhang, S.; et al. The short-chain fatty acid acetate reduces appetite via a central homeostatic mechanism. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 3611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fukuda, S.; Toh, H.; Taylor, T.; Ohno, H.; Hattori, M. Acetate-producing bifidobacteria protect the hose for enteropathogenic infection via carbohydrate transporters. Gut. Microbes 2012, 3, 449–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bush, R.S.; Milligan, L.P. Study of the mechanism of inhibition of ketogenesis by propionate in bovine liver. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 1971, 51, 121–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tedelind, S.; Westberg, F.; Kjerrulf, M.; Vidal, A. Anti-inflammatory properties of the short-chain fatty acids acetate and pro-pionate: A study with relevance to inflammatory bowel disease. World J. Gastroenterol. WJG 2007, 13, 2826–2832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Melbye, P.; Olsson, A.; Hansen, T.H.; Søndergaard, H.B.; Oturai, A.B. Short-chain fatty acids and gut microbiota in multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol. Scand. 2018, 139, 208–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schaad, U.B.; Mütterlein, R.; Goffin, H.; BV-Child Study Group. Immunostimulation with OM-85 in Children with Recurrent Infections of the Upper Respiratory Tract: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study. Chest 2002, 122, 2042–2049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feleszko, W.; Jaworska, J.; Rha, R.-D.; Steinhausen, S.; Avagyan, A.; Jaudszus, A.; Ahrens, B.; Groneberg, D.A.; Wahn, U.; Hamelmann, E. Probiotic-induced suppression of allergic sensitization and airway inflammation is associated with an increase of T regulatory-dependent mechanisms in a murine model of asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2006, 37, 498–505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kearney, S.C.; Dziekiewicz, M.; Feleszko, W. Immunoregulatory and immunostimulatory responses of bacterial lysates in res-piratory infections and asthma. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2015, 114, 364–369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yin, J.; Xu, B.; Zeng, X.; Shen, K. Broncho-Vaxom in pediatric recurrent respiratory tract infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2018, 54, 198–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Boer, G.; Zółkiewicz, J.; Strzelec, K.; Ruszczy’ nski, M.; Hendriks, R.; Braunstahl, G.; Feleszko, W.; Tramper-Stranders, G. Bacterial lysate add-on therapy for the prevention of wheezing episodes and asthma exacerbations: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. Respir. Rev. 2020, in press.
- Emeryk, A.; Bartkowiak-Emeryk, M.; Raus, Z.J.; Braido, F.; Ferlazzo, G.; Melioli, G. Mechanical bacterial lysate administration prevents exacerbation in allergic asthmatic children-The EOLIA study. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 2018, 29, 394–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cazzola, M.; Capuano, A.; Rogliani, P.; Matera, M.G. Bacterial lysates as a potentially effective approach in preventing acute exacerbation of COPD. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 2012, 12, 300–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hsu, C.-Y.; Chiu, S.-W.; Hong, K.-S.; Saver, J.L.; Wu, Y.-L.; Lee, J.-D.; Lee, M.; Ovbiagele, B. Folic Acid in Stroke Prevention in Countries without Mandatory Folic Acid Food Fortification: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J. Stroke 2018, 20, 99–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kok, D.E.; Steegenga, W.T.; Smid, E.J.; Zoetendal, E.G.; Ulrich, C.M.; Kampman, E. Bacterial folate biosynthesis and colorectal cancer risk: More than just a gut feeling. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018, 60, 244–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vogel, R.F.; Pavlovic, M.; Ehrmann, M.A.; Wiezer, A.; Liesegang, H.; Oschanka, S.; Voget, S.; Angelov, A.; Bocker, G.; Liebl, W. Genomic analysis reveals Lactobacilli sanfranciscensis as stable element in traditional sourdoughs. Microb. Cell Fact. 2011, 10 (Suppl. S1), S6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mohammad, M.A.; Molloy, A.; Scott, J.; Hussein, L. Plasma cobalamin and folate and their metabolic markers methylmalonic acid and total homocysteine among Egyptian children before and after nutritional supplementation with the probiotic bacteria Lactobacilli acidophilus in yoghurt matrix. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2006, 57, 470–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Camelo-Castillo, A.; Rivera-Caravaca, J.; Orenes-Piñero, E.; Ramírez-Macías, I.; Roldán, V.; Lip, G.; Marín, F. Gut Microbiota and the Quality of Oral Anticoagulation in Vitamin K Antagonists Users: A Review of Potential Implications. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, Y.; Ma, C.; Zhao, J.; Xu, H.; Hou, Q.; Zhang, H. Lactobacillus casei Zhang and vitamin K2 prevent intestinal tumor-igenesis in mice via adiponectin-elevated different signaling pathways. Oncotarget 2017, 8, 24719–24727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, Y.; Hou, Y.; Wang, G.; Zheng, X.; Hao, H. Gut Microbial Metabolites of Aromatic Amino Acids as Signals in Host–Microbe Interplay. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2020, 31, 818–834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Devlin, A.S.; Marcobal, A.; Dodd, D.; Nayfach, S.; Plummer, N.; Meyer, T.; Pollard, K.S.; Sonnenburg, J.L.; Fischbach, M.A. Modulation of a Circulating Uremic Solute via Rational Genetic Manipulation of the Gut Microbiota. Cell Host Microbe 2016, 20, 709–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cortés-Martín, A.; Selma, M.V.; Tomás-Barberán, F.A.; González-Sarrías, A.; Espín, J.C. Where to Look into the Puzzle of Polyphenols and Health? The Postbiotics and Gut Microbiota Associated with Human Metabotypes. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2020, 64, 1900952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Espín, J.C.; González-Sarrías, A.; Tomás-Barberán, F.A. The gut microbiota: A key factor in the therapeutic effects of (poly)phenols. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2017, 139, 82–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xia, B.; Shi, X.C.; Xie, B.C.; Zhu, M.Q.; Chen, Y.; Chu, X.Y.; Cai, G.H.; Liu, M.; Yang, S.Z.; Mitchell, G.A.; et al. Urolithin A exerts antiobesity effects through enhancing adipose tissue thermogenesis in mice. PLoS Biol. 2020, 18, e3000688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Andreux, P.A.; Blanco-Bose, W.; Ryu, D.; Burdet, F.; Ibberson, M.; Aebischer, P.; Auwerx, J.; Singh, A.; Rinsch, C. The mi-tophagy activator urolithin A is safe and induces a molecular signature of improved mitochondrial and cellular health in humans. Nat. Metab. 2019, 1, 595–603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yoshikata, R.; Myint, K.Z.Y.; Ohta, H. Effects of Equol Supplement on Bone and Cardiovascular Parameters in Middle-Aged Japanese Women: A Prospective Observational Study. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2018, 24, 701–708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tousen, Y.; Ezaki, J.; Fujii, Y.; Ueno, T.; Nishimuta, M.; Ishimi, Y. Natural S-equol decreases bone resorption in postmenopausal, non-equol-producing Japanese women: A Pilot Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Menopause 2011, 18, 563–574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chalamaiah, M.; Yu, W.; Wu, J. Immunomodulatory and anticancer protein hydrolysates (peptides) from food proteins: A review. Food Chem. 2017, 245, 205–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Korhonen, H.; Pihlanto, A.A. Bioactive peptides: Productionand functionality. Int. Dairy J. 2006, 16, 945–960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Möller, N.P.; Scholz-Ahrens, K.E.; Roos, N.; Schrezenmeir, J. Bioactive peptides and proteins from foods: Indication for health effects. Eur. J. Nutr. 2008, 47, 171–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Arpaia, N.; Campbell, C.; Fan, X.; Dikiy, S.; Van Der Veeken, J.; DeRoos, P.; Liu, H.; Cross, J.R.; Pfeffer, K.; Coffer, P.J.; et al. Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation. Nature 2013, 504, 451–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jensen, G.S.; Benson, K.F.; Carter, S.G.; Endres, J.R. GanedenBC30™ cell wall and metabolites: Anti-inflammatory and immune modulating effects in vitro. BMC Immunol. 2010, 11, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hoarau, C.; Martin, L.; Faugaret, D.; Baron, C.; Dauba, A.; Aubert-Jacquin, C.; Velge-Roussel, F.; Lebranchu, Y. Supernatant from Bifidobacterium Differentially Modulates Transduction Signaling Pathways for Biological Functions of Human Dendritic Cells. PLoS ONE 2008, 3, e2753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Menard, S.; Laharie, D.; Asensio, C.; Vidal-Martinez, T.; Candalh, C.; Rullier, A.; Zerbib, F.; Mégraud, F.; Matysiak-Budnik, T.; Heyman, M. Bifidobacterium breve and Streptococcus thermophilus Secretion Products Enhance T Helper 1 Immune Response and Intestinal Barrier in Mice. Exp. Biol. Med. 2005, 230, 749–756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cousin, F.; Jouan-Lanhouet, S.; Dimanche-Boitrel, M.-T.; Corcos, L.; Jan, G. Milk Fermented by Propionibacterium freuden-reichii Induces Apoptosis of HGT-1 Human Gastric Cancer Cells. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e31892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Salva, S.; Tiscornia, I.; Gutiérrez, F.; Alvarez, S.; Bollati-Fogolín, M. Lactobacilli rhamnosus postbiotic-induced immunomod-ulation as safer alternative to the use of live bacteria. Cytokine 2021, 146, 155631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rigo-Adrover, M.D.M.; Knipping, K.; Garssen, J.; van Limpt, K.; Knol, J.; Franch, À.; Castell, M. Prevention of Rotavirus Diarrhea in Suckling Rats by a Specific Fermented Milk Concentrate with Prebiotic Mixture. Nutrients 2019, 11, 189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nocerino, R.; Paparo, L.; Terrin, G.; Pezzella, V.; Amoroso, A.; Cosenza, L.; Cecere, G.; De Marco, G.; Micillo, M.; Albano, F.; et al. Cow’s milk and rice fermented with Lactobacilli paracasei CBA L74 prevent infectious diseases in children: A randomized controlled trial. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 36, 118–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Malagón-Rojas, J.N.; Mantziari, A.; Salminen, S.; Szajewska, H. Postbiotics for Preventing and Treating Common Infectious Diseases in Children: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2020, 12, 389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Osman, A.; El-Gazzar, N.; Almanaa, T.N.; El-Hadary, A.; Sitohy, M. Lipolytic Postbiotic from Lactobacilli paracasei Manages Metabolic Syndrome in Albino Wistar Rats. Molecules 2021, 26, 472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brial, F.; Le Lay, A.; Dumas, M.-E.; Gauguier, D. Implication of gut microbiota metabolites in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2018, 75, 3977–3990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nakamura, F.; Ishida, Y.; Sawada, D.; Ashida, N.; Sugawara, T.; Sakai, M.; Goto, T.; Kawada, T.; Fujiwara, S. Fragmented Lactic Acid Bacterial Cells Activate Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors and Ameliorate Dyslipidemia in Obese Mice. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 2549–2559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Irving, A.T.; Mimuro, H.; Kufer, T.A.; Lo, C.; Wheeler, R.; Turner, L.J.; Thomas, B.J.; Malosse, C.; Gantier, M.P.; Casillas, L.N.; et al. The immune receptor NOD1 and kinase RIP2 interact with bacterial peptidoglycan on early endosomes to promote au-tophagy and inflammatory signaling. Cell Host Microbe 2014, 15, 623–635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dinic, M.; Lukic, J.; Djokic, J.; Milenkovic, M.; Strahinic, I.; Golic, N.; Begovic, J. Lactobacilli fermentum Postbiotic-induced Autophagy as Potential Approach for Treatment of Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity. Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lin, J.; Zhuge, J.; Zheng, X.; Wu, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Xu, T.; Meftah, Z.; Xu, H.; Wu, Y.; Tian, N.; et al. Urolithin A-induced mitophagy suppresses apoptosis and attenuates intervertebral disc degeneration via the AMPK signaling pathway. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2020, 150, 109–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Varian, B.J.; Poutahidis, T.; DiBenedictis, B.T.; Levkovich, T.; Ibrahim, Y.; Didyk, E.; Shikhman, L.; Cheung, H.K.; Hardas, A.; Ricciardi, C.E.; et al. Microbial lysate upregulates host oxytocin. Brain Behav. Immun. 2016, 61, 36–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nataraj, B.H.; Mallappa, R.H. Antibiotic Resistance Crisis: An Update on Antagonistic Interactions between Probiotics and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Curr. Microbiol. 2021, 78, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morisset, M.; Aubert-Jacquin, C.; Soulaines, P.; Moneret-Vautrin, D.-A.; Dupont, C. A non-hydrolyzed, fermented milk formula reduces digestive and respiratory events in infants at high risk of allergy. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 65, 175–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Perrin, V.; Fenet, B.; Praly, J.-P.; Lecroix, F.; Ta, C.D. Identification and synthesis of a trisaccharide produced from lactose by transgalactosylation. Carbohydr. Res. 2000, 325, 202–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spagnolello, O.; Pinacchio, C.; Santinelli, L.; Vassalini, P.; Innocenti, G.P.; De Girolamo, G.; Fabris, S.; Giovanetti, M.; Angeletti, S.; Russo, A.; et al. Targeting Microbiome: An Alternative Strategy for Fighting SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Chemotherapy 2021, 66, 24–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Todorov, S.D.; Tagg, J.R.; Ivanova, I.V. Could Probiotics and Postbiotics Function as “Silver Bullet” in the Post-COVID-19 Era? Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins 2021, 13, 1499–1507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rather, I.A.; Choi, S.B.; Kamli, M.R.; Hakeem, K.R.; Sabir, J.S.M.; Park, Y.H.; Hor, Y.Y. Potential Adjuvant Therapeutic Effect of Lactobacilli plantarum Probio-88 Postbiotics against SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines 2021, 9, 1067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Type of Postbiotic | Experimental Model and Number of Subjects in Study | Mechanism of Action | Effects | Overall References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Exopolysaccharides | Mice, n = 88 [29] | Interaction with dendritic cells and macrophages; | Immunomodulatory, vaccine adjuvants; Delay of atherosclerosis development | [28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38] |
In vitro [31] | ||||
rabbits, n = 7/8 (control and treatment group, respectively) [33] | ||||
in vitro [34] | inhibition of cholesterol absorption; | |||
mice and in vitro [35]; | ||||
in vitro [36] | ||||
rats, n = 6/8 and humans, n = 16 | enhancement of immune response vs. pathogens | |||
RCT [37]; | ||||
105 humans [38] | ||||
Enzymes | In vitro [39]; | Antioxidant action | Potential relief of Crohn symptoms | [39,40,41,42,43,44] |
In vitro [40]; | ||||
Post-weaning male lambs, n = 12 and in vitro [41]; | gut microbiota modulation; | |||
mice [42]; | ||||
in vitro [43]; | protection against pathogens (e.g., Giardia lamblia) | |||
in vitro [44] | ||||
SCFA | In vitro and 6 + 8 colitis model mice [52]; | Energy source; immunosuppressive properties; energy harvesting and reduction of fat deposition; Inhibition of cholesterol synthesis | Ulcerative colitis regression; Atherosclerosis blocking; Improved insulin sensitivity; “statin-like effect“ | [52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60] |
ulcerative colitis patients, n = 11 and ex vivo [53]; | ||||
147 + 195 (male/female) mice [54]; | ||||
mice, n = 12–12−12 and 11–12, for experiment 1 and 2, respectively [55]; | ||||
mice, n = 12 + 12 and ex vivo [56]; | ||||
mice [57]; | ||||
in vitro [59]; | ||||
Bacterial lysates | 232 children, multicenter RCT [61]; mice and in vitro [62]; 152 children, RCT [66] | Stimulation of dendritic cells and activation of T and B lymphocytes | Viral/bacterial disease prevention in children and adults; Reduction of asthma and wheezing episodes | [61,62,63,64,65,66,67] |
Supernatants | In vitro and in vivo [23]; in vitro [24]; Twelve newly weaned lambs, randomized [25]; Swiss Webster mice and ex vivo [26]; in vitro [27] | Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions; prevention of invasion of colon cancer cells; antibacterial activity; trophic action on the intestinal barrier; reverse of the impaired intestinal peristalsis induced by stress | Prevention of enteroinvasive E. coli strains invasion into enterocytes in vitro; improvement of absorptive surface of the intestine and reduction of intestinal pathogens in lambs; wound healing | [23,24,25,26,27] |
Metabolites (vitamins, phenols, aromatic aminoacids, bioactive peptides) | children [71] | Increased production of folate, B12, K vitamin, biopeptides. | Lower risk of stroke | [68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84] |
mice, n = 6 + 6 + 6 + 6, randomized [73] | Reduction of anemia | |||
mice [75]; | Acceleration/reversal of carcinogenesis in at risk subjects/colon cancer patients | |||
mice [78]; | Coagulation modulation | |||
healthy, sedentary elderly humans, RCT [79]; | Progression of chronic kidney disease | |||
middle-aged Japanese women, n = 74 [80]; | Weight loss and improved insulin resistance | |||
non-equol-producing menopausal Japanese women, n = 93 [81] | Significant carotid arterial stiffness reduction; improvement of cholesterol profile | |||
Whole body bone mineral density increase in postmenopausal women | ||||
immune-modulation and anti-allergic properties |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Scarpellini, E.; Rinninella, E.; Basilico, M.; Colomier, E.; Rasetti, C.; Larussa, T.; Santori, P.; Abenavoli, L. From Pre- and Probiotics to Post-Biotics: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010037
Scarpellini E, Rinninella E, Basilico M, Colomier E, Rasetti C, Larussa T, Santori P, Abenavoli L. From Pre- and Probiotics to Post-Biotics: A Narrative Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(1):37. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010037
Chicago/Turabian StyleScarpellini, Emidio, Emanuele Rinninella, Martina Basilico, Esther Colomier, Carlo Rasetti, Tiziana Larussa, Pierangelo Santori, and Ludovico Abenavoli. 2022. "From Pre- and Probiotics to Post-Biotics: A Narrative Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 1: 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010037