Dental Caries Prevalence and Experience (ICDAS II Criteria) of 5-, 12- and 15-Year-Old Children and Adolescents with an Immigrant Background in Greece, Compared with the Host Population: A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sample
2.2. Calibration
2.3. Clinical Examination
2.4. Questionnaire Information
- Sociodemographic characteristics: father’s and mother’s country of origin; years of stay in Greece of the father and the mother; country of student’s birth; gender of the student: male or female; location: urban or rural; father’s and mother’s level of education: (1) up to lower secondary, (2) upper secondary or non-university tertiary or (3) university.
- Dental health-related behaviours: (A) 5-year-old age group: is toothbrushing performed on the child’s teeth? (no/yes). If yes, who brushes your child’s teeth? (1) The child without adult supervision; (2) the child supervised by an adult; (3) an adult. How often is toothbrushing performed? (1) Occasionally; (2) once per day; (3) twice per day. Is toothpaste used during toothbrushing? (no/yes). If yes, what kind of toothpaste is used? (1) Child; (2) adult. Up to what age did your child use a baby bottle? (1) 18 months; (2) 3 years; (3) >3 years. Your child was fed milk with a baby bottle (1) before he/she went for sleep, while he/she was still awake or (2) in his/her bed while sleeping. Did you clean the child’s teeth after baby bottle use? (no/yes). (B) For the 12- and the 15-year-old age groups: Do you brush your teeth and, if yes, how often? (1) Never; (2) occasionally/when I remember it; (3) once per day; (4) twice per day.
- Dietary habits (for the 5-year-old age group): How often does your child consume the following: (1) sugary food, such as biscuits, cake and chocolate (rarely; 3–6 times per week; once per day; 2 or 3 times per day; >3 times per day); (2) sugary drinks such as packaged juice, chocolate milk and sugary milk (rarely; 3–6 times per week; once per day; 2 or 3 times per day; >3 times per day); (3) confectionary products, such as sugary chewing gums, lollipops and candies (rarely; 3–6 times per week; once per day; 2 or 3 times per day; >3 times per day).
2.5. Data Analysis
2.5.1. Calculation of the Caries Indices
2.5.2. Independent Variables Description
2.5.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Analysis (Immigrant Population)
3.2. Negative Binomial Regression Analysis (Immigrant Population)
3.3. Comparison with the Host Population
3.3.1. Caries Indices
3.3.2. Sociodemographic and Behavioural Parameters
3.3.3. Negative Binomial Regression Analysis (Total, Immigrant and Greek Population)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Greeks (n = 1222) | Immigrants (n = 267) | p-Value ‡ | |
---|---|---|---|
Nocturnal baby bottle feeding practice n † (%) | |||
No | 1069 (90.8) | 212 (85.5) | 0.029 |
Yes | 108 (9.2) | 36 (14.5) |
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n† | d3–6mft = 0 n (%) | d1–6mft = 0 n (%) | d1–2t ≥ 1 n (%) | d3–6t ≥ 1 n (%) | S-ECC n (%) | d1–2t (±SD) | d3–6mft (±SD) | d3–6t (±SD) | mt (±SD) | ft (±SD) | d3–6mfs (±SD) | CI n (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area of residence | |||||||||||||
Rural | 70 | 33 (47.1) | 20 (28.6) | 13 (18.6) | 34 (48.6) | 24 (34.3) | 1.2 (1.6) | 2.8 (4.0) | 2.4 (4.0) | 0.1 (0.8) | 0.4 (1.2) | 5.2 (8.8) | 10 (14.7) |
Urban | 197 | 78 (39.6) | 50 (25.4) | 28 (14.2) | 117 (59.4) | 61 (31.0) | 1.0 (1.5) | 3.1 (3.7) | 2.8 (3.6) | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.2 (1.1) | 4.9 (7.6) | 12 (6.2) |
Gender | |||||||||||||
Male | 137 | 56 (40.9) | 38 (27.7) | 18 (13.1) | 80 (58.4) | 43 (31.4) | 1.1 (1.6) | 3.2 (4.1) | 3.0 (3.9) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.2 (1.1) | 5.5 (8.9) | 6 (4.6) * |
Female | 130 | 55 (42.3) | 32 (24.6) | 23 (17.7) | 71 (54.6) | 42 (32.3) | 1.1 (1.5) | 2.8 (3.5) | 2.4 (3.4) | 0.1 (0.6) | 0.4 (1.2) | 4.5 (6.6) | 16 (12.2) |
Father’s education | |||||||||||||
≤Lower secondary | 98 | 35 (35.7) | 21 (21.4) | 14 (14.3) | 61 (62.2) | 39 (39.8) * | 1.1 (1.4) | 3.5 (4.3) | 3.4 (4.2) | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.5) | 6.1 (8.9) | 6 (5.9) |
Upper secondary or non-university tertiary | 120 | 52 (43.3) | 34 (28.3) | 18 (15.0) | 65 (54.2) | 31 (25.8) | 1.1 (1.7) | 2.6 (3.3) | 2.2 (3.2) | 0.1 (0.6) | 0.4 (1.3) | 4.0 (6.5) | 13 (11.0) |
University | 31 | 18 (58.1) | 13 (42.0) | 5 (16.1) | 13 (41.9) | 7 (22.6) | 1.0 (1.4) | 2.1 (3.4) | 1.7 (2.3) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.4 (2.0) | 4.1 (9.1) | 2 (6.9) |
Mother’s education | |||||||||||||
≤Lower secondary | 89 | 33 (37.1) | 23 (25.8) | 10 (11.2) | 54 (60.7) | 37 (41.6) * | 1.0 (1.4) | 3.7 (4.4) | 3.6 (4.4) | 0.1 (0.7) | 0.1 (0.6) | 6.0 (8.6) | 6 (6.6) |
Upper secondary or non-university tertiary | 119 | 53 (44.5) | 36 (30.3) | 17 (14.3) | 64 (53.8) | 31 (26.1) | 1.1 (1.7) | 2.4 (3.2) | 2.2 (3.1) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.2 (1.0) | 4.1 (6.6) | 10 (8.5) |
University | 43 | 21 (48.8) | 10 (23.3) | 11 (25.6) | 21 (48.8) | 8 (18.6) | 1.3 (1.7) | 2.2 (3.4) | 1.7 (2.6) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.6 (2.1) | 4.3 (9.2) | 5 (12.5) |
Total | 267 | 111 (41.6) | 70 (26.2) | 41 (15.4) | 151 (56.6) | 85 (31.8) | 1.1 (1.6) | 3.0 (3.8) | 2.7 (3.9) | 0.0 (0.4) | 0.3 (1.1) | 5.0 (7.9) | 22 (8.2) |
n† | D3–6MFT = 0 n (%) | D1–6MFT = 0 n (%) | D1–2T ≥ 1 n (%) | D3–6T ≥ 1 n (%) | D1–2T (±SD) | D3–6MFT (±SD) | D3–6T (±SD) | MT (±SD) | FT (±SD) | D3–6MFS (±SD) | CI n (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area of residence | ||||||||||||
Rural | 66 | 21 (31.8) | 8 (12.5) | 13 (19.7) | 34 (51.5) | 2.1 (2.7) | 2.7 (2.8) | 1.8 (2.6) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.6 (1.2) | 4.5 (5.7) | 24 (35.7) |
Urban | 168 | 57 (33.9) | 29 (17.4) | 28 (16.7) | 91 (54.2) | 1.8 (1.7) | 2.4 (2.4) | 1.7 (2.3) | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.6 (1.2) | 3.3 (3.7) | 47 (28.0) |
Gender | ||||||||||||
Male | 114 | 42 (36.8) | 20 (17.7) | 22 (19.3) | 56 (49.1) | 1.6 (1.8) | 2.2 (2.4) | 1.6 (2.3) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.5 (1.1) | 3.2 (4.0) | 33 (29.3) |
Female | 118 | 35 (29.7) | 16 (13.8) | 19 (16.1) | 68 (57.6) | 2.1 (2.3) | 2.7 (2.6) | 1.9 (2.4) | 0.0 (0.2) | 0.7 (1.3) | 4.0 (4.7) | 37 (31.2) |
Father’s education | ||||||||||||
≤Lower secondary | 107 | 25 (23.4) * | 7 (6.7) * | 18 (16.8) | 68 (63.6) * | 1.9 (1.8) | 3.1 (2.8) * | 2.4 (2.7) * | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.7 (1.3) | 4.8 (5.3) * | 28 (26.6) |
Upper secondary or non-university tertiary | 86 | 35 (40.7) | 18 (20.9) | 17 (19.8) | 40 (46.5) | 2.0 (2.4) | 2.0 (2.2) | 1.3 (1.8) | 0.0 (0.2) | 0.6 (1.2) | 2.7 (3.3) | 28 (32.3) |
University | 36 | 16 (44.4) | 11 (30.6) | 5 (13.9) | 15 (41.7) | 1.5 (1.9) | 1.6 (1.8) | 1.0 (1.6) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.5 (1.2) | 2.1 (2.2) | 14 (37.9) |
Mother’s education | ||||||||||||
≤Lower secondary | 108 | 24 (22.2) * | 9 (8.6) * | 15 (13.9) | 69 (63.9) * | 1.8 (1.9) | 3.1 (2.7) * | 2.3 (2.7) * | 0.0 (0.2) | 0.6 (1.2) | 4.9 (5.2) * | 32 (29.2) |
Upper secondary or non-university tertiary | 83 | 33 (39.8) | 13 (15.7) | 20 (24.1) | 41 (49.4) | 2.3 (2.4) | 2.0 (2.2) | 1.4 (1.8) | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.7 (1.2) | 2.7 (3.3) | 20 (24.5) |
University | 39 | 20 (51.3) | 14 (35.9) | 6 (15.4) | 13 (33.3) | 1.4 (1.7) | 1.5 (2.0) | 0.9 (1.7) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.5 (1.2) | 2.0 (2.5) | 19 (47.8) |
Total | 234 | 78 (33.3) | 37 (16.0) | 41 (17.5) | 125 (53.4) | 1.9 (2.1) | 2.4 (2.5) | 1.8 (2.4) | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.6 (1.2) | 3.6 (4.4) | 71 (30.2) |
n† |
D3–6MFT = 0
n (%) |
D1–6MFT = 0 n (%) |
D1–2T ≥ 1
n (%) |
D3–6T ≥ 1
n (%) |
D1–2T
(±SD) |
D3–6MFT
(±SD) |
D3–6T
(±SD) |
MT
(±SD) |
FT
(±SD) |
D3–6MFS
(±SD) |
CI
n (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area of residence | ||||||||||||
Rural | 40 | 13 (32.5) | 3 (7.5) | 10 (25.0) | 18 (45.0) | 2.8 (4.0) | 2.8 (2.9) | 1.7 (2.4) | 0.1 (0.3) | 1.1 (1.7) | 3.7 (4.1) | 19 (47.5) |
Urban | 166 | 54 (32.5) | 23 (13.9) | 31 (18.7) | 84 (50.6) | 2.3 (2.7) | 2.5 (2.8) | 1.6 (2.4) | 0.0 (0.2) | 0.9 (1.5) | 3.7 (5.0) | 61 (37.0) |
Gender | ||||||||||||
Male | 87 | 30 (34.5) | 15 (17.2) | 15 (17.2) | 44 (50.6) | 2.0 (2.6) | 2.3 (2.8) | 1.7 (2.5) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.6 (1.1) | 3.5 (5.0) | 29 (32.8) |
Female | 119 | 37 (31.1) | 11 (9.2) | 26 (21.8) | 58 (48.7) | 2.7 (3.2) | 2.7 (2.9) | 1.6 (2.4) | 0.0 (0.2) | 1.1 (1.8) | 3.9 (4.6) | 52 (43.4) |
Father’s education | ||||||||||||
≤Lower secondary | 52 | 17 (32.7) | 5 (9.6) | 12 (23.1) | 30 (57.7) * | 2.7 (3.2) | 2.5 (2.9) | 1.8 (2.6) | 0.1 (0.3) | 0.7 (1.4) | 3.6 (4.4) | 14 (27.8) |
Upper secondary or non-university tertiary | 101 | 30 (29.7) | 15 (14.9) | 15 (14.9) | 53 (52.5) | 2.2 (2.8) | 2.8 (2.9) | 1.8 (2.5) | 0.0 (0.2) | 1.0 (1.5) | 4.1 (5.3) | 39 (39.1) |
University | 49 | 19 (38.8) | 6 (12.2) | 13 (26.5) | 17 (34.7) | 2.6 (3.2) | 2.2 (2.8) | 1.3 (2.2) | 0.0 (0.0) | 1.0 (1.7) | 3.1 (4.3) | 26 (52.8) |
Mother’s education | ||||||||||||
≤Lower secondary | 55 | 13 (23.6) | 4 (7.3) | 9 (16.4) | 33 (60.0) * | 2.2 (2.7) | 3.2 (3.0) * | 2.1 (2.8) * | 0.1 (0.3) | 1.1 (1.6) | 4.7 (4.6) * | 20 (37.2) |
Upper secondary or non-university tertiary | 80 | 26 (32.5) | 11 (13.8) | 15 (18.8) | 44 (55.0) | 2.5 (3.0) | 2.7 (3.0) | 1.9 (2.5) | 0.0 (0.2) | 0.9 (1.6) | 4.3 (5.7) | 25 (31.1) |
University | 70 | 28 (40.0) | 11 (15.7) | 17 (24.3) | 24 (34.3) | 2.4 (3.2) | 1.9 (2.4) | 1.0 (1.9) | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.8 (1.4) | 2.3 (3.4) | 36 (52.1) |
Total | 206 | 67 (32.5) | 26 (12.6) | 41 (19.9) | 102 (49.5) | 2.4 (3.0) | 2.6 (2.9) | 1.7 (2.4) | 0.0 (0.2) | 0.9 (1.5) | 3.7 (4.8) | 81 (39.1) |
Independent Variable | Independent Variable | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mother’s Education Level (Ref. University) | Father’s Education Level (Ref. University) | ||||||||
Dependent variable | d3–6mfs | 5-year-olds (n = 248) | 5-year-olds (n = 248) | ||||||
B | IRR † | 95% C.I. | p-Value | B | IRR ‡ | 95% C.I. | p-Value | ||
−0.001 | 1.00 1 | (0.48. 2.07) | 0.998 | −0.002 | 1.00 1 | (0.42. 2.40) | 0.997 | ||
0.216 | 1.24 2 | (0.55. 2.80) | 0.604 | 0.291 | 1.34 2 | (0.51. 3.52) | 0.556 | ||
Dependent variable | D3–6MFS | 12-year-olds (n = 227) | 12-year-olds (n = 227) | ||||||
B | IRR † | 95% C.I. | p-Value | B | IRR ‡ | 95% C.I. | p-Value | ||
0.262 | 1.30 1 | (0.76. 2.22) | 0.337 | 0.090 | 1.09 1 | (0.67. 1.79) | 0.719 | ||
0.614 | 1.85 2 | (1.08. 3.17) | 0.025 | 0.444 | 1.56 2 | (0.96. 2.55) | 0.076 | ||
Dependent variable | D3–6MFS | 15-year-olds (n = 202) | 15-year-olds (n = 202) | ||||||
B | IRR † | 95% C.I. | p-Value | B | IRR ‡ | 95% C.I. | p-Value | ||
0.631 | 1.88 1 | (1.20. 2.95) | 0.006 | 0.034 | 1.04 1 | (0.64. 1.69) | 0.890 | ||
0.877 | 2.40 2 | (1.56. 3.71) | <0.001 | −0.281 | 0.76 2 | (0.46. 1.25) | 0.276 |
5-Year-Olds | 12-Year-Olds | 15-Year-Olds | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Greeks | Immigrants | p-Value ‡ | Greeks | Immigrants | p-Value ‡ | Greeks | Immigrants | p-Value ‡ | |
(n = 1222) | (n = 267) | (n = 1252) | (n = 234) | (n = 1228) | (n = 206) | ||||
Area of residence n † (%) | |||||||||
Rural | 463 (37.9) | 70 (26.2) | <0.001 | 426 (34.0) | 66 (28.2) | 0.096 | 438 (35.7) | 40 (19.4) | <0.001 |
Urban | 759 (62.1) | 197 (73.8) | 826 (66.0) | 168 (71.8) | 790 (64.3) | 166 (80.6) | |||
Gender n † (%) | |||||||||
Male | 595 (48.7) | 137 (51.3) | 0.458 | 612 (49.2) | 114 (49.1) | 1.000 | 569 (46.4) | 87 (42.2) | 0.29 |
Female | 627 (51.3) | 130 (48.7) | 631 (50.8) | 118 (50.9) | 658 (53.6) | 119 (57.8) | |||
Father’s education n † (%) | |||||||||
≤Lower secondary | 193 (16.0) | 98 (39.4) | 286 (22.9) | 107 (46.7) | 276 (22.5) | 52 (25.7) | |||
Upper secondary/ | 738 (61.3) | 120 (48.2) | <0.001 | 580 (46.5) | 86 (37.6) | <0.001 | 545 (44.5) | 101 (50.0) | 0.049 |
non-university tertiary | |||||||||
University | 272 (22.6) | 31 (12.4) | 381 (30.6) | 36 (15.7) | 403 (32.9) | 49 (24.3) | |||
Mother’s education n † (%) | |||||||||
≤Lower secondary | 94 (7.8) | 89 (35.5) | 236 (18.9) | 108 (47.0) | 213 (17.4) | 55 (26.8) | |||
Upper secondary/ | 774 (64.0) | 119 (47.4) | <0.001 | 612 (49.1) | 83 (36.1) | <0.001 | 590 (48.1) | 80 (39.0) | 0.003 |
non-university tertiary | |||||||||
University | 342 (28.3) | 43 (17.1) | 399 (32.0) | 39 (17.0) | 423 (34.5) | 70 (34.1) | |||
DI-S score n † (%) | |||||||||
Good (0.0–0.6) | 671 (54.9) | 93 (34.8) | <0.001 | 549 (43.9) | 79 (33.8) | 0.002 | 698 (56.9) | 103 (50.0) | 0.173 |
Fair (0.7–1.8) | 525 (43.0) | 163 (61.1) | 647 (51.7) | 135 (57.7) | 494 (40.3) | 197 (47.1) | |||
Poor (1.9–3.0) | 26 (2.1) | 11 (4.1) | 55 (4.4) | 20 (8.5) | 35 (2.9) | 6 (2.9) | |||
Toothbrushing frequency n † (%) | |||||||||
No/occasionally | 219 (17.9) | 51 (19.1) | 0.797 | 147 (11.8) | 42 (18.0) | 0.033 | 138 (11.3) | 19 (9.2) | 0.643 |
Once per day | 741 (60.6) | 156 (58.4) | 537 (43.0) | 96 (41.0) | 433 (35.3) | 77 (37.4) | |||
Twice per day | 262 (21.4) | 60 (22.5) | 565 (45.2) | 96 (41.0) | 655 (53.4) | 110 (53.4) | |||
Subject who performs the toothbrushing n † (%) | |||||||||
The child, unsupervised | 195 (16.3) | 65 (25.4) | |||||||
The child, supervised by an adult | 772 (64.4) | 168 (65.6) | <0.001 | N/A | N/A | ||||
An adult | 231 (19.3) | 23 (9.0) | |||||||
Frequency of consumption of sugary food (e.g., biscuits, cake, chocolate) n † (%) | |||||||||
≤Once per day | 1048 (88.7) | 220 (86.3) | |||||||
≥Twice per day | 134 (11.3) | 35 (13.7) | 0.285 | Ν/A | Ν/A | ||||
Frequency of consumption of confectionery products (e.g., lollipops, sugary chewing gums, candies) n † (%) | |||||||||
≤Once per day | 1166 (98.0) | 240 (93.4) | <0.001 | N/A | N/A | ||||
≥Twice per day | 23 (2.0) | 17 (6.6) | |||||||
Frequency of consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (e.g., packaged juices, chocolate milk, sugary milk n † (%) | |||||||||
≤Once per day | 1142 (96.2) | 234 (90.3) | <0.001 | N/A | N/A | ||||
≥Twice per day | 46 (3.8) | 25 (9.7) |
Dependent Variable | Independent Variable | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5-year-olds | |||||||||
Crude (n = 1489) | Adjusted (n = 1450) | ||||||||
d3–6mfs | Ethnic background (ref. Greek) | B | IRR | 95% C.I. | p-Value | B | IRR † | 95% C.I. | p-Value |
0.792 | 2.21 1 | (1.77. 2.76) | <0.001 | 0.479 | 1.61 1 | (1.22. 2.14) | 0.001 | ||
12-year-olds | |||||||||
Crude (n = 1486) | Adjusted (n = 1460) | ||||||||
D3–6MFS | Ethnic background (ref. Greek) | B | IRR | 95% C.I. | p-Value | B | IRR † | 95% C.I. | p-Value |
0.494 | 1.64 1 | (1.37. 1.95) | <0.001 | 0.241 | 1.27 1 | (1.07. 1.51) | 0.006 | ||
15-year-olds | |||||||||
Crude (n = 1434) | Adjusted (n = 1422) | ||||||||
D3–6MFS | Ethnic background (ref. Greek) | B | IRR | 95% C.I. | p-Value | B | IRR † | 95% C.I. | p-Value |
0.089 | 1.09 1 | (0.90. 1.32) | 0.357 | 0.099 | 1.10 1 | (0.90. 1.35) | 0.331 |
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Diamanti, I.; Berdouses, E.D.; Kavvadia, K.; Arapostathis, K.N.; Polychronopoulou, A.; Oulis, C.J. Dental Caries Prevalence and Experience (ICDAS II Criteria) of 5-, 12- and 15-Year-Old Children and Adolescents with an Immigrant Background in Greece, Compared with the Host Population: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010014
Diamanti I, Berdouses ED, Kavvadia K, Arapostathis KN, Polychronopoulou A, Oulis CJ. Dental Caries Prevalence and Experience (ICDAS II Criteria) of 5-, 12- and 15-Year-Old Children and Adolescents with an Immigrant Background in Greece, Compared with the Host Population: A Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(1):14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010014
Chicago/Turabian StyleDiamanti, Iliana, Elias D. Berdouses, Katerina Kavvadia, Konstantinos N. Arapostathis, Argy Polychronopoulou, and Constantine J. Oulis. 2022. "Dental Caries Prevalence and Experience (ICDAS II Criteria) of 5-, 12- and 15-Year-Old Children and Adolescents with an Immigrant Background in Greece, Compared with the Host Population: A Cross-Sectional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 1: 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010014