Measuring Neighborhood Landscapes: Associations between a Neighborhood’s Landscape Characteristics and Colon Cancer Survival
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Residential Histories
2.3. Socio-Economic Variables
2.4. Environmental Variables
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Study Population
3.2. Univariate Models
3.3. Multivariate Models
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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The NLCD Code | Reclassification | Commentary |
---|---|---|
21: Developed Open Space | U21: Developed Open Space | Max 20% imperviousness per cell/pixel |
22: Developed Low Intensity | U22: Developed Low Intensity | 20–49% imperviousness per cell/pixel |
23: Developed Medium Intensity | U23: Developed Medium Intensity | 50–79% imperviousness per cell/pixel |
24: Developed High Intensity | U24: Developed High Intensity | 80–100% imperviousness per cell/pixel |
41: Deciduous Forest | Forest | Dominated by tree canopy and includes any type of parks and squares |
42: Evergreen Forest | ||
43: Mixed Forest | ||
52: Shrub/Scrub | Shrubs | Dominated by shrubs; present on empty housing parcels |
71: Grasslands/Herbaceous | Grassland | In urban areas, may assume a low-quality green space |
81: Pasture/Hay | ||
82: Cultivated Crops | ||
90: Woody Wetland | Forest | Woody wetlands are common in southern New Jersey and have large proportions of deciduous trees |
95: Emergent Herbaceous Wetland | Grassland | Herbaceous (also grassy) wetlands are typical for many coastal regions. |
Variables | Land Covers | Definition | Commentary |
---|---|---|---|
Land Cover Class-Level Metrics | |||
Class Proportion | Forest, Grass, Shrubs, Industrial, Developed Lands (Open, Low, Medium, High Intensities) | Composition metric. Proportional coverage—% of the landscape covered by each type. | Used by [72,73] and recommended by [36] for green and water space; [74] recommended for Forest, Shrubs and Grass |
Aggregation Index (AI) | Developed Lands (Open, Low, Medium, High Intensities), Industrial Areas | Configuration metric. Computed as an area-weighted mean class aggregation index, where each class is weighted by its proportional area in the landscape. | Redundant with several other metrics of proportion, cohesion, and contiguity and may be a meaningful alternative [53] |
Splitting Index | Forest, Grass, Shrubs | Configuration metric. A large splitting index, results from land covers being split into many patches with an even size distribution. | Correlated with the aggregation index. Applied for green spaces only in relation to health outcomes [39]. |
Contiguity Index (CI) | Developed Lands (Open, Low, Medium, High Intensities), Forest, Grass | Configuration metric. Large contiguous patches will result in larger contiguity index values. | CI for green/tree land cover classes associated with health outcomes [39]. |
Landscape-Level Metrics | |||
Shannon Diversity Index | Based on all Land Cover Classes | Composition metric. The more classes and the more equally distributed, the higher the index. | Used for measuring the aesthetic value and diversity [8]. Associated with health outcomes [39]. |
Patch Richness Density (PRD) | Based on all Land Cover Classes | Number of patches per hectare. High values indicate high dispersion | PRD for green areas and recreational lands associated with poor health [39]. |
Contagion Index | Based on all Land Cover Classes | Composition metric. High values indicate result from landscapes with a few large, contiguous patches and low dispersion and interspersion of patch types | |
Average Proportion of Imperviousness | Census Tract Average based on NLCD dataset estimating imperviousness proportion per pixel | Composition metric. Highly negatively correlated with Tree Canopy proportions but is more accurate | Highly correlated (negative) with Tree Canopy Cover but more accurate [75,76] |
Census-Based Variables | |||
Poverty Level by Category | Percentage of population 18 and older living below federal poverty level. | Socio-economic status | Associated with cancer outcomes including survival and mortality |
Median Year Structures Built | Median that the areas residential buildings were constructed. | Organized into categories. | Housing age and conditions are associated with health outcomes [17,77] and poverty [78] |
Housing Density | Number of structures per area unit (acre) | Continuous variable defined by census tract | Potential intermediate factor in health outcomes [79] |
Overall (n = 3949) | |
---|---|
Age | |
Mean (SD) | 65.8 (13.3) |
Median [Min, Max] | 68.0 [21.0, 85.0] |
Gender | |
Male | 1878 (47.6%) |
Female | 2071 (52.4%) |
Race/Ethnicity | |
NH-White | 2902 (73.5%) |
NH-Black | 488 (12.3%) |
Hispanic (any race) | 325 (8.2%) |
NH-API | 141 (3.6%) |
Other | 93 (2.4%) |
Regional Stage Subcategory | |
Regional, direct extension only | 1339 (33.9%) |
Regional, lymph nodes only | 1268 (32.1%) |
Regional, both | 1342 (34.0%) |
Vital Status | |
Censored | 2862 (72.5%) |
Colon Cancer Death | 1087 (27.5%) |
Survival Time (months) | |
Mean (SD) | 62.3 (38.0) |
Median [Min, Max] | 66.0 [1.00, 139] |
CT Changes (Type of “moves”) | |
CT at Date of Diagnosis Only | 2587 (65.5%) |
Change in Residential CT within NJ | 885 (22.4%) |
Change in Residential CT outside NJ | 477 (12.1%) |
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Wiese, D.; Stroup, A.M.; Maiti, A.; Harris, G.; Lynch, S.M.; Vucetic, S.; Gutierrez-Velez, V.H.; Henry, K.A. Measuring Neighborhood Landscapes: Associations between a Neighborhood’s Landscape Characteristics and Colon Cancer Survival. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094728
Wiese D, Stroup AM, Maiti A, Harris G, Lynch SM, Vucetic S, Gutierrez-Velez VH, Henry KA. Measuring Neighborhood Landscapes: Associations between a Neighborhood’s Landscape Characteristics and Colon Cancer Survival. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(9):4728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094728
Chicago/Turabian StyleWiese, Daniel, Antoinette M. Stroup, Aniruddha Maiti, Gerald Harris, Shannon M. Lynch, Slobodan Vucetic, Victor H. Gutierrez-Velez, and Kevin A. Henry. 2021. "Measuring Neighborhood Landscapes: Associations between a Neighborhood’s Landscape Characteristics and Colon Cancer Survival" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 9: 4728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094728
APA StyleWiese, D., Stroup, A. M., Maiti, A., Harris, G., Lynch, S. M., Vucetic, S., Gutierrez-Velez, V. H., & Henry, K. A. (2021). Measuring Neighborhood Landscapes: Associations between a Neighborhood’s Landscape Characteristics and Colon Cancer Survival. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4728. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094728