How Are Consensual, Non-Consensual, and Pressured Sexting Linked to Depression and Self-Harm? The Moderating Effects of Demographic Variables
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Sexting Discourses and Different Types of Sexting
1.2. Links between Sexting and Depression and Non-suicidal Self-harm
1.3. Moderating Effects of Demographic Variables
1.4. Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measures
2.3. Procedures
2.4. Data Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary Analyses
3.2. Associations between Sexting and Depression and Non-Suicidal Self-Harm
4. Discussion
5. Limitations and Future Directions
6. Conclusions and Implications
- (1)
- Consensual sexting: In the digital age, young people’s intimate communication takes place offline and online. While intimate communication and relationships come along with risks, they are part of growing up and also provide important resources. Hence, sexting can be understood as a normal sexual behavior widespread among adults that youth are growing into. Acknowledging the normalcy of sexting is an important message for prevention of sexting harms because youth will only share concerns, worries, or problems around their sexting experiences if they can be sure not to be judged, stigmatized, or punished by parents, educators, or peers for their sexting involvement. However, stressing that consensual sexting is a legitimate and normal behavior among adolescents not to be stigmatized or moralized does not mean to promote sexting as something necessary, mandatory, or cool per se. Just as any other sexual behavior, it is a matter of personal preference and appropriate context. Prevention messages can include empirical evidence regarding sexting prevalence in different age groups as well as reasons and relationship contexts that might motivate young people for or against sexting. Additionally, pragmatic tips on “safer sexting” can be shared (e.g., on how to use photos that are not identifiable or where to get help immediately if something stressful occurs around sexting). It also should be clarified that sexting as intimate communication always requires explicit consent and privacy.
- (2)
- Pressured sexting: As with all sexual behaviors, the issue of consent is crucial but not always clear-cut. Young and inexperienced people might be particularly vulnerable to peer-pressure and seemingly agree to behavior they do not want just to receive attention, appreciation, or win friends. Hence, it is important to empower youth and particularly girls as well as gender and sexual minority youth to clearly reject behaviors they do not really feel comfortable with. At the same time, it is important to sensitize youth and particularly boys to the necessity to obtain explicit and enthusiastic consent before they initiate sexting. Gendered aspects of pressured sexting should be integrated in prevention messages, e.g., in terms of a reflection of traditional gender roles that expect girls to present themselves in a sexy way or that expect from boys sexual conquests—expectations that easily translate into pressured sexting and gendered power (abuse) relations [55].
- (3)
- Non-consensual sexting: To violate the privacy and confidentiality of intimate communication such as sexting by sharing and disseminating another person’s sext without their knowledge or consent is unethical and also illegal in most jurisdictions. Hence, it is important to sensitize youth to the fact that sharing other people’s sexts is neither normal nor “funny” as many believe [76] but a seldom, highly unethical, and even illegal behavior. Legal consequences should be explained as well as the severe negative effects on victims of sexual image-based bullying. To foster empathy and solidarity with bullying victims it is important to de-stigmatize sexting as suggested above. Otherwise, the perpetrators will continue to excuse their behavior by blaming the victims for their ostensibly questionable sexting behavior (“if they create nude selfies it’s their fault when the images are shared”). To address non-consensual sharing of sexts as image-based bullying also helps to develop target-specific prevention messages for bullies and for the often large group of bystanders who could and should intervene as soon as they hear about a sext that is circulated within a school, class, or group of friends.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Consensual Sexting | Non-Consensual Sexting | Pressured Sexting | |
---|---|---|---|
M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | |
All | 5.69 (0.82) | 3.83 (0.66) | 3.96 (0.70) |
Gender | |||
Male | 5.69 (0.83) | 3.98 (0.66) | 3.88 (0.63) |
Female | 5.71 (0.86) | 3.71 (0.59) | 4.01 (0.70) |
Ethnicity | |||
Minority | 5.66 (0.88) | 3.82 (0.61) | 3.90 (0.68) |
White | 5.70 (0.81) | 3.86 (0.60) | 3.93 (0.69) |
Disability Status | |||
Disability | 5.60 (0.78) | 3.84 (0.63) | 3.92 (0.71) |
Non-Disability | 5.66 (0.80) | 3.86 (0.68) | 3.94 (0.74) |
Sexual Orientation | |||
Sexual Minority | 5.82 (0.92) | 3.80 (0.71) | 3.93 (0.72) |
Straight | 5.63 (0.81) | 3.82 (0.76) | 3.97 (0.73) |
Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consensual Sexting | --- | ||||
Non-Consensual Sexting | 0.25 ** | --- | |||
Pressured Sexting | 0.19 * | 0.41 *** | --- | ||
Depressive Symptoms | 0.10 | 0.30 *** | 0.30 *** | --- | |
Non-Suicidal Self-Harm | 0.09 | 0.29 *** | 0.33 *** | 0.44 *** | --- |
Consensual Sexting | Non-Consensual Sexting | Pressured Sexting | |||||||
β | SE | p | β | SE | p | β | SE | p | |
Gender female | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.451 | −0.19 | 0.04 | 0.029 | 0.22 | 0.03 | 0.031 |
Ethnicity white | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.576 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 0.403 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.426 |
Disability non-disability status | 0.16 | 0.03 | 0.313 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.379 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.391 |
Sexual Minority straight | −0.21 | 0.05 | 0.026 | 0.16 | 0.02 | 0.201 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.376 |
Depressive Symptoms | Non-Suicidal Self-Harm | ||||||||
β | SE | p | β | SE | p | ||||
Gender female | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.801 | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.444 | |||
Ethnicity white | −0.10 | 0.02 | 0.403 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.799 | |||
Disability non-disability status | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.777 | −0.08 | 0.02 | 0.413 | |||
Sexual Minority straight | −0.14 | 0.03 | 0.359 | −0.14 | 0.03 | 0.367 | |||
Consensual Sexting (CS) | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.886 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.763 | |||
Non-Consensual Sexting (NCS) | 0.27 | 0.06 | 0.024 | 0.23 | 0.05 | 0.024 | |||
Pressured Sexting (PS) | 0.30 | 0.10 | 0.001 | 0.27 | 0.08 | 0.003 | |||
Gender ×CS | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.726 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.813 | |||
Gender × NCS | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.451 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.449 | |||
Gender × PS | 0.20 | 0.05 | 0.019 | 0.18 | 0.04 | 0.032 | |||
Ethnicity × CS | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.834 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.841 | |||
Ethnicity × NCS | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.463 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.479 | |||
Ethnicity × PS | 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.039 | 0.19 | 0.04 | 0.021 | |||
Disability × CS | −0.06 | 0.02 | 0.801 | −0.10 | 0.03 | 0.487 | |||
Disability × NCS | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.813 | −0.02 | 0.01 | 0.801 | |||
Disability × PS | −0.11 | 0.02 | 0.460 | −0.10 | 0.03 | 0.453 | |||
Sexual Minority × CS | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.448 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.439 | |||
Sexual Minority × NCS | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.442 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.831 | |||
Sexual Minority × PS | 0.19 | 0.04 | 0.018 | 0.19 | 0.04 | 0.020 |
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Wachs, S.; Wright, M.F.; Gámez-Guadix, M.; Döring, N. How Are Consensual, Non-Consensual, and Pressured Sexting Linked to Depression and Self-Harm? The Moderating Effects of Demographic Variables. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2597. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052597
Wachs S, Wright MF, Gámez-Guadix M, Döring N. How Are Consensual, Non-Consensual, and Pressured Sexting Linked to Depression and Self-Harm? The Moderating Effects of Demographic Variables. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(5):2597. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052597
Chicago/Turabian StyleWachs, Sebastian, Michelle F. Wright, Manuel Gámez-Guadix, and Nicola Döring. 2021. "How Are Consensual, Non-Consensual, and Pressured Sexting Linked to Depression and Self-Harm? The Moderating Effects of Demographic Variables" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 5: 2597. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052597