Facilitators and Reducers of Korean Travelers’ Avoidance/Hesitation Behaviors toward China in the Case of COVID-19
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Risk Perception and Its Role
2.2. Anticipated Emotions
2.3. Destination Attachment
2.4. Theoretical Model
3. Methods
3.1. Measurement Development
3.2. Data Collection Procedure and Sample Characteristics
4. Results
4.1. Reliability and Validity Assessment
4.2. Structural Model Assessment and Hypothesis Testing
4.3. Baseline Model and Test for Metric Invariance
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Constructs | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) Human crowding risk | 1.000 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
(2) Spatial crowding risk | 0.523 a (0.274) b | 1.000 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
(3) Quality risk | 0.223 (0.050) | 0.363 (0.132) | 1.000 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
(4) Psychological risk | 0.403 (0.162) | 0.412 (0.170) | 0.380 (0.144) | 1.000 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
(5) Health and safety risk | 0.378 (0.143) | 0.431 (0.186) | 0.375 (0.141) | 0.905 (0.819) | 1.000 | – | – | – | – | – |
(6) Financial risk | 0.235 (0.055) | 0.375 (0.141) | 0.415 (0.172) | 0.456 (0.208) | 0.501 (0.251) | 1.000 | – | – | – | – |
(7) Positive anticipated emotion | −0.269 (0.072) | −0.246 (0.061) | −0.145 (0.021) | −0.564 (0.318) | −0.569 (0.324) | −0.217 (0.047) | 1.000 | – | – | – |
(8) Negative anticipated emotion | 0.159 (0.025) | 0.251 (0.063) | 0.209 (0.044) | 0.528 (0.279) | 0.573 (0.328) | 0.336 (0.113) | −0.649 (0.421) | 1.000 | – | – |
(9) Destination attachment | −0.262 (0.069) | −0.207 (0.043) | −0.080 (0.006) | −0.533 (0.284) | −0.532 (0.283) | −0.180 (0.032) | 0.743 (0.552) | −0.482 (0.232) | 1.000 | – |
(10) Avoidance/Hesitation behavior | 0.363 (0.132) | 0.338 (0.114) | 0.238 (0.057) | 0.751 (0.564) | 0.780 (0.608) | 0.317 (0.100) | −0.674 (0.454) | 0.642 (0.412) | −0.631 (0.398) | 1.000 |
Mean | 5.664 | 5.117 | 4.622 | 5.677 | 5.601 | 4.944 | 3.385 | 4.759 | 3.045 | 5.509 |
Standard deviation | 1.147 | 1.170 | 1.624 | 1.269 | 1.290 | 1.423 | 1.539 | 1.383 | 1.603 | 1.367 |
CR | 0.925 | 0.831 | 0.955 | 0.946 | 0.959 | 0.914 | 0.957 | 0.885 | 0.969 | 0.967 |
AVE | 0.804 | 0.622 | 0.913 | 0.853 | 0.886 | 0.841 | 0.846 | 0.720 | 0.913 | 0.853 |
Hypothesized Paths | Standardized Estimates | t-Values | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
H1 | Risk perception | → | Positive anticipated emotion | −0.614 ** | −7.430 |
H2 | Risk perception | → | Negative anticipated emotion | 0.635 ** | 7.327 |
H3 | Risk perception | → | Avoidance/hesitation behavior | 0.555 ** | 7.253 |
H4 | Positive anticipated emotion | → | Avoidance/hesitation behavior | −0.237 ** | −5.659 |
H5 | Negative anticipated emotion | → | Avoidance/hesitation behavior | 0.202 ** | 4.494 |
Risk perception | → | Human crowding risk | 0.419 ** | - | |
Risk perception | → | Spatial crowding risk | 0.457 ** | 6.198 | |
Risk perception | → | Quality risk | 0.405 ** | 6.145 | |
Risk perception | → | Psychological risk | 0.961 ** | 8.451 | |
Risk perception | → | Health and safety risk | 0.987 ** | 8.463 | |
Risk perception | → | Financial risk | 0.531 ** | 6.861 | |
Total Variance Explained: | Indirect Impact on Retention: | Total Impact on RI: | |||
R2 for avoidance/hesitation behavior = 0.745 R2 for positive anticipated emotion = 0.378 R2 for negative anticipated emotion = 0.403 R2 for human crowding risk = 0.176 R2 for spatial crowding risk = 0.209 R2 for quality risk = 0.164 R2 for psychological risk = 0.924 R2 for health and safety risk = 0.975 R2 for financial risk = 0.282 | βrisk perception→positive & negative anticipated emotions→avoidance/hesitation behavior = 0.274 ** | βrisk perception = 0.828 ** βpositive anticipated emotion = −0.237 ** βnegative anticipated emotion = 0.202 ** |
Paths | High Group of Destination Attachment (n = 198) | Low Group of Destination Attachment (n = 231) | Baseline Model (Freely Estimated) | Nested Model (Constrained to Be Equal) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | t-Values | β | t-Values | |||
Risk perception → Positive anticipated emotion | −0.297 ** | −3.014 | −0.481 ** | −3.729 | χ2 (693) = 1567.221 | χ2 (694) = 1571.109 a |
Risk perception → Negative anticipated emotion | 0.416 ** | 3.536 | 0.588 ** | 3.883 | χ2 (693) = 1567.221 | χ2 (694) = 1569.933 b |
Risk perception → avoidance/hesitation behavior | 0.610 ** | 4.186 | 0.477 ** | 3.741 | χ2 (693) = 1567.221 | χ2 (694) = 1567.993 c |
Chi-square Difference Test: | ||||||
a Δχ2 (1) = 3.888, p < 0.05 (H6a—supported) b Δχ2 (1) = 2.712, p > 0.05 (H6b—not supported) c Δχ2 (1) = 0.772, p > 0.05 (H6c—not supported) |
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Han, H.; Che, C.; Lee, S. Facilitators and Reducers of Korean Travelers’ Avoidance/Hesitation Behaviors toward China in the Case of COVID-19. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 12345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312345
Han H, Che C, Lee S. Facilitators and Reducers of Korean Travelers’ Avoidance/Hesitation Behaviors toward China in the Case of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(23):12345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312345
Chicago/Turabian StyleHan, Heesup, Chen Che, and Sanghyeop Lee. 2021. "Facilitators and Reducers of Korean Travelers’ Avoidance/Hesitation Behaviors toward China in the Case of COVID-19" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 23: 12345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312345