Race, Adolescent Socioeconomic Status, and Lifetime Non-Medical Use of Prescription Painkillers: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Measures
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographics
3.2. Substance Use
3.3. Other Measures at Wave 4
3.4. Crude and Adjusted Prevalence of NMUPP
3.5. Supplemental Analyses
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Derrida, J. Plato’s Pharmacy. In Dissemination; Johnson, B., Ed.; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 1981; pp. 61–171. [Google Scholar]
- Alexander, G.C.; Frattaroli, S.; Gielen, A.C. (Eds.) The Prescription Opioid Epidemic: An Evidence-Based Approach; Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Warner, M.; Trinidad, J.P.; Bastian, B.A.; Miniño, A.M.; Hedegaard, H. Drugs most frequently involved in drug overdose deaths: United States, 2010–2014. Natl. Vital Stat. Rep. 2016, 65, 1–15. [Google Scholar]
- Kochanek, K.D.; Murphy, S.L.; Xu, J.Q.; Tejada-Vera, B. Deaths: Final Data for 2014. National Vital Statistics Reports; National Center for Health Statistics: Hyattsville, MD, USA, 2016; Volume 65, p. 4. [Google Scholar]
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011: National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits; HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4760, DAWN Series D-39; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: Rockville, MD, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Johnston, L.D.; Bachman, J.G.; O’Malley, P.M. Monitoring the Future: A Continuing Study of American Youth, 2013; Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research: Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Rudd, R.A.; Aleshire, N.; Zibbell, J.E.; Gladden, R.M. Increases in Drug and Opioid Overdose Deaths--United States, 2000–2014. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2016, 64, 1378–1382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wu, L.-T.; Pilowsky, D.J.; Patkar, A.A. Non-prescribed use of pain relievers among adolescents in the United States. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008, 94, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sung, H.-E.; Richter, L.; Vaughan, R.; Johnson, P.B.; Thom, B. Nonmedical use of prescription opioids among teenagers in the United States: Trends and correlates. J. Adolesc. Health 2005, 37, 44–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McCabe, S.E.; Knight, J.R.; Teter, C.J.; Wechsler, H. Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: Prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction 2004, 100, 96–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vaughn, M.G.; Nelson, E.J.; Salas-Wright, C.P.; Qian, Z.; Schootman, M. Racial and ethnic trends and correlates of non-medical use of prescription opioids among adolescents in the United States 2004–2013. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2015, 73, 17–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martín, M.J.; Pritchard, M.E. Factors associated with alcohol use in later adolescence. J. Stud. Alcohol 1991, 52, 5–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanson, M.D.; Chen, E. Socioeconomic Status and Health Behaviors in Adolescence: A Review of the Literature. J. Behav. Med. 2007, 30, 263–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simoni-Wastila, L. Gender and other factors associated with the non-medical use of abusable prescription drugs. Subst. Use Misuse 2004, 39, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martins, S.S.; Kim, J.H.; Chen, L.-Y.; Levin, D.; Keyes, K.M.; Cerdá, M.; Storr, C.L. Nonmedical prescription drug use among US young adults by educational attainment. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2014, 50, 713–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stewart, T.D.; Reed, M.B. Lifetime nonmedical use of prescription medications and socioeconomic status among young adults in the United States. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abus. 2015, 41, 458–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Joynt, M.; Train, M.K.; Robbins, B.W.; Halterman, J.S.; Caiola, E.; Fortuna, R.J. The Impact of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status and Race on the Prescribing of Opioids in Emergency Departments throughout the United States. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2013, 28, 1604–1610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Goodman, E.; Bin, H. Socioeconomic Status, Depressive Symptoms, and Adolescent Substance Use. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2002, 156, 448–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Patrick, M.E.; Wightman, P.; Schoeni, R.F.; Schulenberg, J. Socioeconomic Status and Substance Use among Young Adults: A Comparison across Constructs and Drugs. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 2012, 73, 772–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Luthar, S.S. The Culture of Affluence: Psychological Costs of Material Wealth. Child Dev. 2003, 74, 1581–1593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Luthar, S.S.; Latendresse, S.J. Children of the Affluent. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2016, 14, 49–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Duncan, G.J.; Brooks-Gunn, J. Family Poverty, Welfare Reform, and Child Development. Child Dev. 2000, 71, 188–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Evans, G.W.; Kim, P. Childhood Poverty and Young Adults’ Allostatic Load. Psychol. Sci. 2012, 23, 979–983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans, J.; Melotti, R.; Heron, J.; Ramchandani, P.; Wiles, N.; Murray, L.; Stein, A. The timing of maternal depressive symptoms and child cognitive development: A longitudinal study. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2011, 53, 632–640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Benjet, C.; Borges, G.; Medina-Mora, M.E.; Méndez, E. Chronic childhood adversity and stages of substance use involvement in adolescents. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013, 131, 85–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fergusson, D.M.; Woodward, L.J.; Horwood, L.J. Risk factors and life processes associated with the onset of suicidal behaviour during adolescence and early adulthood. Psychol. Med. 2000, 30, 23–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Matthews, K.A.; Gallo, L.C. Psychological Perspectives on Pathways Linking Socioeconomic Status and Physical Health. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2011, 62, 501–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jayakody, R.; Danziger, S.; Pollack, H. Welfare Reform, Substance Use, and Mental Health. J. Health Politics Policy Law 2000, 25, 623–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Harris, K.M.; Halpern, C.T.; Whitsel, E.; Hussey, J.; Tabor, J.; Entzel, P.; Udry, J.R. The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health: Research Design. 2009. Available online: http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design (accessed on 1 November 2021).
- Simoni-Wastila, L.; Yang, H.-W.K.; Lawler, J. Correlates of Prescription Drug Nonmedical Use and Problem Use by Adolescents. J. Addict. Med. 2008, 2, 31–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herman-Stahl, M.A.; Krebs, C.; Kroutil, L.A.; Heller, D.C. Risk and protective factors for methamphetamine use and nonmedical use of prescription stimulants among young adults aged 18 to 25. Addict. Behav. 2007, 32, 1003–1015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Young, A.M.; Glover, N.; Havens, J. Nonmedical Use of Prescription Medications among Adolescents in the United States: A Systematic Review. J. Adolesc. Health 2012, 51, 6–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rew, L.; Wong, Y.J. A systematic review of associations among religiosity/spirituality and adolescent health attitudes and behaviors. J. Adolesc. Health Off. Publ. Soc. Adolesc. Med. 2006, 38, 433–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wallace, J.M.; Brown, T.N.; Bachman, J.G.; La Veist, T.A. The influence of race and religion on abstinence from alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana among adolescents. J. Stud. Alcohol 2003, 64, 843–848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Resnick, M.D.; Bearman, P.S.; Blum, R.W.; Bauman, K.E.; Harris, K.M.; Jones, J.; Tabor, J.; Beuhring, T.; Sieving, R.E.; Shew, M.; et al. Protecting adolescents from harm. Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. JAMA 1997, 278, 823–832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Donahue, M.J.; Benson, P.L. Religion and the Well-Being of Adolescents. J. Soc. Issues 1995, 51, 145–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, C.; Denton, M.L.; Faris, R.; Regnerus, M. Mapping American Adolescent Religious Participation. J. Sci. Study Relig. 2002, 41, 597–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singhal, A.; Tien, Y.-Y.; Hsia, R.Y. Racial-Ethnic Disparities in Opioid Prescriptions at Emergency Department Visits for Conditions Commonly Associated with Prescription Drug Abuse. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0159224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pletcher, M.J.; Kertesz, S.G.; Kohn, M.A.; Gonzales, R. Trends in Opioid Prescribing by Race/Ethnicity for Patients Seeking Care in US Emergency Departments. JAMA 2008, 299, 70–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Heins, A.; Grammas, B.M.; Heins, R.J.K.; Costello, M.W.; Huang, M.K.; Mishra, S. Determinants of variation in analgesic and opioid prescribing practice in an emergency department. J. Opioid Manag. 2006, 2, 335–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Green, C.R.; Ndao-Brumblay, S.K.; West, B.; Washington, T. Differences in Prescription Opioid Analgesic Availability: Comparing Minority and White Pharmacies across Michigan. J. Pain Off. J. Am. Pain Soc. 2005, 6, 689–699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morrison, R.S.; Wallenstein, S.; Natale, D.K. “We don’t carry that”—Failure of pharmacies in predominantly nonwhite neighborhoods to stock opioid analgesics. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000, 343, 1023–1026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blake, S.M.; Amaro, H.; Schwartz, P.M.; Flinchbaugh, L.J. A Review of Substance Abuse Prevention Interventions for Young Adolescent Girls. J. Early Adolesc. 2001, 21, 294–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cavanagh, S.E. The Social Construction of Romantic Relationships in Adolescence: Examining the Role of Peer Networks, Gender, and Race. Sociol. Inq. 2007, 77, 572–600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gfroerer, J.C.; Tan, L.L. Substance Use Among Foreign-Born Youths in the United States: Does the Length of Residence Matter? Am. J. Public Health 2011, 93, 1892–1895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Katz, C.M.; Fox, A.M.; White, M.D. Assessing the Relationship between Immigration Status and Drug Use. Justice Q. 2010, 28, 541–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peña, J.B.; Wyman, P.A.; Brown, C.H.; Matthieu, M.M.; Olivares, T.E.; Hartel, D.; Zayas, L.H. Immigration generation status and its association with suicide attempts, substance use, and depressive symptoms among Latino adolescents in the USA. Prev. Sci. Off. J. Soc. Prev. Res. 2008, 9, 299–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vega, W.A.; Alderete, E.; Kolody, B.; Aguilar-Gaxiola, S. Illicit drug use among Mexicans and Mexican Americans in California: The effects of gender and acculturation. Addiction 1998, 93, 1839–1850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hoffman, K.M.; Trawalter, S.; Axt, J.R.; Oliver, M.N. Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2016, 113, 4296–4301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Compton, W.M.; Volkow, N.D. Abuse of prescription drugs and the risk of addiction. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006, 83 (Suppl. S1), S4–S7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Demographics, W1 (1994/1995) | Mean | % | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean Age | 14 | |||
Non-Hispanic Black | 2347 | 20% | ||
Non-Hispanic White | 6798 | 59% | ||
Hispanic | 1722 | 15% | ||
Other Race | 735 | 6% | ||
Male | 5533 | 48% | ||
Per-person HH Inc. (Equiv.) | USD 18,000 (med.) | |||
Parental Ed >= College | 3858 | 33% | ||
Substance Use, W4 (2008) | NHB | NHW | ||
Rx Painkiller Ever Misuse | 14% | 5.% | 19% | |
Any Rx Drug Ever Misuse | 17% | 8% | 23% | |
Marijuana Ever | 55% | 45% | 60% | |
Cocaine Ever | 19% | 5% | 24% | |
Crystal Meth | 9% | 2% | 12% | |
Ever Alcohol Use/Dep | 3049 | 26% | 12% | 33% |
Ever Cannabis Use/Dep | 1491 | 13% | 12% | 14% |
Other Drug Use/Dep | 880 | 8% | 3% | 10% |
Daily Smoker | 2551 | 22% | 16% | 27% |
Other Measures, W4 (2008) | NHB | NHW | ||
College Grad | 3750 | 32% | 28% | 35% |
Own Home | 4687 | 41% | 25% | 48% |
Good self-rated health | 10,537 | 91% | 90% | 92% |
Depressed | 2215 | 19% | 15% | 22% |
Obese | 4034 | 37% | 43% | 34% |
Ever Arrested | 3336 | 29% | 35% | 28% |
Midpoint Income >= USD 50K | 6082 | 56% | 41% | 59% |
Income Pre-Tax | USD 35,078 mean; USD 30,000 median | USD 30,743 mean; USD 26,000 med. | USD 35,570 mean; USD 30,000 med. |
Per Person Household Income Quartile (Wave 1) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | p-value for trend 1 | |
Full sample (n = 11,602) | 14.1 | 10.6 | 13.4 | 15.5 | 16.9 | <0.001 |
NHB (n = 2347) | 4.9 | 4.8 | 3.8 | 7.5 | 4.3 | 0.677 |
NHW (n = 6798) | 19.0 | 18.4 | 18.5 | 18.5 | 19.8 | 0.216 |
Hispanic (n = 1722) | 8.7 | 6.3 | 9.2 | 11.5 | 11.0 | 0.002 |
Other (n = 735) | 10.5 | 9.1 | 10.0 | 8.3 | 14.1 | 0.162 |
Males only (n = 5533) | 16.7 | 13.0 | 15.9 | 17.6 | 20.1 | <0.001 |
NHB (n = 1028) | 5.9 | 6.0 | 4.2 | 8.9 | 5.1 | 0.793 |
NHW (n = 3285) | 22.1 | 22.9 | 22.0 | 20.8 | 22.8 | 0.989 |
Hispanic (n = 833) | 10.3 | 6.3 | 11.6 | 13.0 | 16.7 | 0.001 |
Other (n = 387) | 13.7 | 15.3 | 7.7 | 11.1 | 21.4 | 0.101 |
Females only (n = 6069) | 11.6 | 8.6 | 11.2 | 13.3 | 13.9 | <0.001 |
NHB (n = 1319) | 4.2 | 4.0 | 3.8 | 5.6 | 3.7 | 0.780 |
NHW (n = 3513) | 16.1 | 14.9 | 14.8 | 16.5 | 17.4 | 0.101 |
Hispanic (n = 889) | 7.2 | 6.2 | 7.4 | 9.8 | 5.8 | 0.503 |
Other (n = 348) | 6.9 | 4.3 | 12.6 | 4.2 | 6.3 | 0.905 |
Parental Income Quartile (Wave 1) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | p-value for trend 1 | |
Full sample (n = 11,602) | 14.5 | 13.3 | 13.8 | 14.8 | 16.0 | 0.007 |
NHB (n = 2347) | 5.8 | 6.4 | 4.5 | 7.2 | 4.7 | 0.407 |
NHW (n = 6798) | 18.5 | 19.1 | 18.0 | 17.8 | 19.2 | 0.712 |
Hispanic (n = 1722) | 10.5 | 9.1 | 10.9 | 12.0 | 11.1 | 0.403 |
Other (n = 735) | 10.0 | 9.8 | 8.8 | 7.6 | 13.5 | 0.343 |
Males only (n = 5533) | 17.1 | 15.5 | 16.2 | 17.3 | 19.4 | 0.130 |
NHB (n = 1028) | 6.7 | 7.2 | 4.7 | 9.3 | 5.3 | 0.268 |
NHW (n = 3285) | 21.8 | 23.7 | 21.7 | 20.3 | 22.3 | 0.493 |
Hispanic (n = 833) | 12.3 | 9.2 | 13.0 | 14.2 | 16.6 | 0.062 |
Other (n = 387) | 13.3 | 15.4 | 7.1 | 11.1 | 20.4 | 0.214 |
Females only (n = 6069) | 12.1 | 11.1 | 11.6 | 12.5 | 13.0 | 0.004 |
NHB (n = 1319) | 4.8 | 5.4 | 3.9 | 5.3 | 3.9 | 0.996 |
NHW (n = 3513) | 15.5 | 15.1 | 14.6 | 15.6 | 16.4 | 0.131 |
Hispanic (n = 889) | 9.0 | 9.1 | 8.9 | 10.0 | 5.7 | 0.361 |
Other (n = 348) | 6.9 | 5.2 | 11.8 | 4.0 | 6.5 | 0.719 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ehntholt, A.; Pabayo, R.; Berkman, L.; Kawachi, I. Race, Adolescent Socioeconomic Status, and Lifetime Non-Medical Use of Prescription Painkillers: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 12289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312289
Ehntholt A, Pabayo R, Berkman L, Kawachi I. Race, Adolescent Socioeconomic Status, and Lifetime Non-Medical Use of Prescription Painkillers: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(23):12289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312289
Chicago/Turabian StyleEhntholt, Amy, Roman Pabayo, Lisa Berkman, and Ichiro Kawachi. 2021. "Race, Adolescent Socioeconomic Status, and Lifetime Non-Medical Use of Prescription Painkillers: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 23: 12289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312289