Associations between Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Physical Activity, and Respiratory Health in Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Physical Activity
1.2. Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke
1.3. Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Physical Activity
1.4. Aim
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Participants and Setting
2.3. Data Collection Procedures
2.4. Measures
2.4.1. Demographic Information
2.4.2. Second-Hand Smoke Exposure
2.4.3. Anthropometry
2.4.4. Physical Activity
2.4.5. Respiratory Health
2.4.6. Cardiorespiratory Fitness
2.5. Statistical Methods
3. Results
3.1. Participant Descriptives
3.1.1. Sampling
3.1.2. Participant Demographics and Weight Classification
3.1.3. Cardiorespiratory Fitness
3.1.4. Physical Activity
3.1.5. Spirometry
3.1.6. Fractional Exhaled Nitric Oxide
3.1.7. Household Smoking Status
3.1.8. Carbon Monoxide as a Measure of Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke Exposure
3.2. Association between Second-Hand Smoke Exposure and Children’s Cardiorespiratory Fitness
3.3. Association between Second-Hand Smoke Exposure and Children’s Physical Activity
3.4. Association between Second-Hand Smoke Exposure and Markers of Respiratory Health in Children
4. Discussion
4.1. Household Smoking
4.2. Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Physical Activity Levels
4.3. Association of Second-Hand Smoke Exposure with Cardiorespiratory Fitness
4.4. Association of Second-Hand Smoke Exposure with Physical Activity
4.5. Markers of Respiratory Health
4.5.1. Association between Second-Hand Smoke Exposure and Spirometry Outcomes
4.5.2. Association between Second-Hand Smoke Exposure and Fractional Exhaled Nitric Oxide
4.6. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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N | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | SD | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anthropometry | |||||
Decimal age (years) | 104 | 8.5 | 11.5 | 10.1 | 0.6 |
Maturation (years to PHV) | 103 | −4.1 | 0.1 | −2.2 | 1.0 |
Stature (cm) | 103 | 122.0 | 158.0 | 141.7 | 6.6 |
Mass (kg) | 103 | 22.8 | 66.0 | 38.2 | 9.2 |
BMI (kg·m−2) | 103 | 13.2 | 30.5 | 19.0 | 3.9 |
Cardiorespiratory fitness | |||||
VO2peak (mL·min−1) | 94 | 843.0 | 2399.0 | 1659.5 | 307.9 |
VO2peak (mL·kg−1·min−1) | 94 | 24.8 | 59.5 | 45.0 | 7.7 |
VO2peak (mL·kg−0.53·min−1) | 94 | 157.5 | 322.6 | 247.2 | 36.3 |
Respiratory health | |||||
FEV1 (%) | 103 | 43.9 | 131.7 | 83.0 | 17.2 |
FVC (%) | 103 | 44.3 | 136.0 | 89.0 | 19.7 |
PEF (%) | 103 | 33.6 | 155.7 | 75.3 | 21.0 |
FEV1/FVC | 103 | 52.7 | 100.0 | 89.6 | 11.0 |
FeNO * (ppb) | 102 | <5 | 147 | 15.9 | 33.4 |
Physical activity | |||||
PAQ-C | 103 | 2.1 | 5.0 | 3.6 | 0.7 |
SHS exposure | |||||
eCO (ppm) | 100 | 0 | 7 | 1.8 | 1.2 |
Cigarettes per day | 104 | 0 | 65 | 5.5 | 10.8 |
Deprivation | |||||
EIMD rank * | 104 | 69 | 25,530 | 1427 | 5652 |
Model and Predictor | Unstandardised Coefficient (B) | 95% Confidence Interval | Standard Error of B | Significance | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | ||||
Unadjusted model (R2 = 0.036, p = 0.068, F = 3.4) | |||||
Constant | 252.3 | 243.1 | 261.5 | 4.6 | <0.001 |
Sqrt-cigarettes | −3.7 | −7.6 | 0.3 | 2.0 | 0.068 |
Adjusted model (R2 = 0.352, p < 0.001, F = 6.6) | |||||
Constant | −113.7 | −331.9 | 104.5 | 109.7 | 0.303 |
Sqrt-cigarettes | −3.8 | −7.3 | −0.4 | 1.7 | 0.030 |
Sex | −26.2 | −49.0 | −3.4 | 11.5 | 0.025 |
Age (years) | 12.2 | 0.4 | 23.9 | 5.9 | 0.042 |
Stature (cm) | 1.3 | 0.1 | 2.5 | 0.6 | 0.036 |
Maturation (years to PHV) | 0.1 | −12.4 | 12.4 | 6.2 | 0.998 |
Physical activity | 15.4 | 6.0 | 24.8 | 4.7 | 0.002 |
LogEIMD | 5.2 | −5.7 | 16.0 | 5.5 | 0.347 |
Model and Predictor | Unstandardised Coefficient (B) | 95% Confidence Interval | Standard Error of B | Significance | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | ||||
Unadjusted model (R2 = 0.011, p = 0.548, F = 0.4) | |||||
Constant | 241.3 | 226.4 | 256.3 | 7.4 | <0.001 |
Smoke indoors | −7.4 | −32.3 | 17.5 | 12.2 | 0.548 |
Adjusted model (R2 = 0.297, p = 0.153, F = 1.7) | |||||
Constant | 136.3 | −318.4 | 591.0 | 222.0 | 0.544 |
Smoking indoors | −17.0 | −41.2 | 7.1 | 11.8 | 0.159 |
Sex | −26.3 | −62.0 | 9.3 | 17.4 | 0.142 |
Age (years) | −0.7 | −24.2 | 22.8 | 11.5 | 0.951 |
Stature (cm) | 0.6 | −1.9 | 3.2 | 1.2 | 0.611 |
Maturation (years to PHV) | 5.6 | −14.4 | 25.7 | 9.8 | 0.570 |
Physical activity | 20.4 | 4.7 | 36.2 | 7.7 | 0.013 |
LogEIMD | −7.5 | −32.0 | 17.0 | 12.0 | 0.538 |
Model and Predictor | Unstandardised Coefficient (B) | 95% CI | Standard Error of B | Significance | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | ||||
Unadjusted model (R2 < 0.001, p = 0.826, F = 0.05) | |||||
Constant | 3.64 | 3.47 | 3.81 | 0.08 | <0.001 |
Sqrt-cigarettes | 0.01 | −0.07 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.826 |
Adjusted model (R2 = 0.089, p = 0.104, F = 1.9) | |||||
Constant | 6.54 | 3.05 | 10.03 | 1.76 | <0.001 |
Sqrt-cigarettes | 0.03 | −0.05 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.456 |
Sex | −0.29 | −0.80 | 0.21 | 0.25 | 0.255 |
Age (years) | −0.21 | −0.47 | 0.04 | 0.13 | 0.100 |
BMI (kg·m−2) | −0.03 | −0.07 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.104 |
Maturation (years to PHV) | 0.05 | −0.22 | 0.31 | 0.13 | 0.732 |
LogEIMD | 0.04 | −0.20 | 0.28 | 0.12 | 0.751 |
Model | Model R2 | Model Significance, p | Unstandardised Coefficient (B) for Sqrt-Cigarettes | 95% Confidence Interval | Standard Error of B | Significance of B, p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | ||||||
FEV1% unadjusted | <0.001 | 0.864 | −0.2 | −2.0 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 0.864 |
FEV1% adjusted | 0.138 | 0.005 | 0.4 | −1.4 | 2.2 | 0.9 | 0.660 |
FVC% unadjusted | 0.013 | 0.247 | −1.2 | −3.3 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 0.247 |
FVC% adjusted | 0.135 | 0.006 | −0.7 | −2.8 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 0.494 |
PEF% unadjusted | 0.002 | 0.659 | −0.6 | −2.7 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 0.608 |
PEF% adjusted | 0.064 | 0.166 | 0.0 | −2.2 | 2.1 | 1.1 | 0.965 |
FER unadjusted | 0.015 | 0.227 | 0.6 | −0.4 | 1.7 | 0.5 | 0.227 |
FER adjusted | 0.030 | 0.561 | 0.7 | −0.4 | 1.8 | 0.5 | 0.204 |
FeNO unadjusted | 0.001 | 0.760 | −0.01 | −0.09 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.760 |
FeNO adjusted | 0.050 | 0.701 | −0.01 | −0.10 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.818 |
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Parnell, M.; Foweather, L.; Whyte, G.; Dickinson, J.; Gee, I. Associations between Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Physical Activity, and Respiratory Health in Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111445
Parnell M, Foweather L, Whyte G, Dickinson J, Gee I. Associations between Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Physical Activity, and Respiratory Health in Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(21):11445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111445
Chicago/Turabian StyleParnell, Melissa, Lawrence Foweather, Greg Whyte, John Dickinson, and Ivan Gee. 2021. "Associations between Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke Exposure and Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Physical Activity, and Respiratory Health in Children" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 21: 11445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111445