Next Article in Journal
LGBTQ+ Psychosocial Concerns in Nursing and Midwifery Education Programmes: Qualitative Findings from a Mixed-Methods Study
Previous Article in Journal
Perceived Overqualification, Emotional Exhaustion, and Creativity: A Moderated-Mediation Model Based on Effort–Reward Imbalance Theory
Previous Article in Special Issue
Effect of Cycling Cadence on Neuromuscular Function: A Systematic Review of Acute and Chronic Alterations
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJERPH
Volume 18
Issue 21
10.3390/ijerph182111369
ijerph-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Origin of the Fastest 5 km, 10 km and 25 km Open-Water Swimmers—An Analysis from 20 Years and 9819 Swimmers

by
Aldo Seffrin
1,
Beat Knechtle
2,3,*,
Rodrigo Luiz Vancini
4,
Douglas de Assis Teles Santos
5,
Claudio Andre Barbosa de Lira
6,
Lee Hill
7,
Thomas Rosemann
3 and
Marilia Santos Andrade
1
1
Department of Physiology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo 04021-001, Brazil
2
Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
3
Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland
4
Center for Physical Education and Sports, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória 29075-910, Brazil
5
Faculty of Physical Education, State University of Bahia, Teixeira de Freitas 45992-255, Brazil
6
Human and Exercise Physiology Division, Faculty of Physical Education and Dance, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia 74690-900, Brazil
7
Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(21), 11369; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111369
Submission received: 22 August 2021 / Revised: 21 October 2021 / Accepted: 25 October 2021 / Published: 29 October 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport Modalities, Performance and Health)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In elite pool swimmers competing at world class level, mainly athletes from the United States of America and Australia are dominating. Little is known, however, for the nationality of dominating swimmers in elite open-water long-distance swimming races such as the official FINA races over 5 km, 10 km and 25 km—held since 2000. The aim of this study was to investigate the participation and performance trends by nationality of these elite open-water swimmers. Race results from all female and male swimmers competing in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km FINA races between 2000 and 2020 were analyzed. A total of 9819 swimmers competed between 2000 and 2020 in these races. The five countries that figure most times among the top ten in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km races over the years were Italy, Germany, Russia, Brazil and the Netherlands. In 10 km races, considering the all the athletes from each country, male athletes from Germany, Italy, and France presented faster race times than the other countries. In 10 km, female athletes presented no significant difference among the countries. In 5 and 25 km races, there were no differences between countries, for male and female athletes. Moreover, comparing only the 10 best results (top 10) from each country, there were no differences between countries in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km, for male and female athletes. Men were faster than women for all three distances. In summary, male swimmers from Europe (i.e., Germany, Italy, France) are dominating the 10 km FINA races. In the 5 km and 25 km FINA races, there is no dominating nationality, but among the top five countries in the top 10 over the years, three are European countries.

1. Introduction

Competitive open-water swimming (OWS) is a relatively young sports discipline to the Olympic program, but has been a feature of the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Championships since 1991 [1]. As the popularity of OWS increased over the years, the 10 km marathon swim race made its debut at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing [2]. Although the current Olympic program only offers the 10 km event, the FINA World Championships Ligue Européenne de Natation (LEN) European Championships have an expanded programs including the 5 km, 10 km and 25 km distances, and a recently introduced mixed team relay event [3,4].
The increased number of competitions have stimulated the interest in OWS worldwide and as a result, the number of participants has substantially increased in the last years [5]. Secondly, it is interesting to note that there has been an exponential growth in women participating [5], including a trend towards an over overall higher competitive level of women than of men [5,6,7]. It has been shown that women were faster than men in the ‘Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming’ with ‘Catalina Channel Swim’, ‘English Channel Swim’ and ‘Manhattan Island Marathon Swim’ [8]. However, in the 5 km, 10 km and 25 km FINA races, men were faster than women in all race distances [9,10] although women improved their performance in the 10 km race distance, but not for the other distances [10,11]. Interestingly, in the 3000 m FINA World Championships between 1992 and 2014, women were not able to reduce the sex difference in performance to men across years [12].
Regarding to the origin of elite pool swimmers at world class level [13,14], mainly athletes from the United States of America (USA) and Australia (AUS) were more likely to finish in the Top 10 or medal positions [15,16]. However, regarding the relationship between the origin of open-water long-distance swimmers and their performance little is known, and the few published data are not from World Championships [8,17,18,19]. In the ‘English Channel Crossing’ between 1875 and 2013, most swimmers were from Great Britain (GB), the USA, AUS and Ireland. Secondly, the fastest swim times were achieved by athletes from the USA, AUS and GB [18] and in the ‘Strait of Gibraltar’, local Spanish swimmers were the fastest [19]. In long-distance open-water events in the ‘Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming’ from 1875 to 2017 (‘Catalina Channel Swim’, ‘English Channel Swim’ and ‘Manhattan Island Marathon Swim’) the fastest swimmers were from AUS, USA, GB and Canada [8] were recorded the fastest performances. Therefore, there is little knowledge from where the swimmers competing in world championships originate from [9].
Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the participation and performance trends of elite open-water swimmers competing 5 km, 10 km and 25 km races held since 2000. Based upon existing findings for pool and open-water swimmers we hypothesized that the fastest swimmers competing in that discipline would also originate from the USA and AUS.

2. Methods

2.1. Ethical Approval

This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Kanton St. Gallen, Switzerland, with a waiver of the requirement for informed consent of the participant as the study involved the analysis of publicly available data (EKSG 01-06-2010).

2.2. Data

Race results from all female and male swimmers competing in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km FINA races between 2000 and 2020 were obtained from the FINA website [4]. From the entire FINA website database of the competitions of 5, 10 and 25 km races, the following data were selected to tabulation and subsequent analysis: nationality, sex, race time, race distance (5, 10 or 25 km), competition date and local.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Descriptive data were presented by mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values. In order to compare race time between sexes, Student-t test for independent samples was used. The mean values of the entire sample and top 10 results of each country and sex were selected for analysis. Data did not follow a normal distribution nor had homogeneous variances according to Shapiro–Wilk and Levene’s test, respectively. A generalized linear model (GLM) with a gamma or tweedie probability distribution and identity or log link function was used to assess the effect of nationality of the athlete and the advancement of the years on race time for the entire sample and for top 10 sample, the method of choosing the distribution of the dependent variable and the link function was the Akaike information criterion (AIC), using its lowest value. For this analysis, the nationalities were grouped into six groups, the five nationalities that were most present in the top 10 times in each event and one group with the other nationalities by sex. Differences found were investigated with posthoc Bonferroni test. The level of significance was set at 0.05. SPSS version 26.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) was used for all statistical analyses.

3. Results

In order to compare the performance of the countries that participated in the 5, 10 or 25 km swim events, the 5 countries that were most often among the top 10 were first selected (Table 1). The other countries were grouped into a single group called “Others” (Table 1). First, the mean value of each swim distance of all participants from each country (divided by sex) was compared. After this initial analysis, the mean values of each swim distance of the top 10 swimmers of each country were compared. The results section was divided in these two parts. First, data from the entire sample are presented, and, secondly, data from the top 10 comparison are presented.

3.1. Comparison among All Athletes from Each Country

A total of 9819 swimmers competed between 2000 and 2020 in 5, 10 and 25 km races. Most of the swimmers (76.1%) competed in the 10 km (n = 7476, 3227 women and 4249 men), followed by 5 km (16%, n = 1575, 740 women and 835 men) and 25 km (7.9%, n = 768, 323 women and 445 men).
The 5 km event (n = 1575) had a total mean time of 01:00:15 ± 05:12 (minimum 00:51:17/maximum 01:47:37) h:min:s, the 10 km event (n = 7476) had a mean time of 02:02:21 ± 11:43 (minimum 01:29:51/maximum 03:01:00) h:min:s, while the 25 km (n = 768) had a mean time of 05:23:07 ± 27:30 (minimum 04:10:41/maximum 07:02:38) h:min:s for the entire sample. The time spend in each distance by each sex were presented in Table 2.
Regarding nationality, there were observed no significant differences on the mean time in the 5 km events for females [x2 (5) = 3.608, p = 0.607, AIC = 10,297.59] (Figure 1a) and males (Figure 1b) [x2 (5) = 9.706, p = 0.084, AIC = 11,669.47]. In addition, there was a significant effect of the advancement of the years on the mean time in the 5 km events for males [x2 (1) = 27.880, p < 0.001], a reduction of 11,906 s/year [IC = −16.325/−7.486], but not for females [x2 (1) = 2.978, p = 0.084] (Figure 2a).
For 10 km events, no significant differences on the mean time were found based on the nationality of the athlete for females [x2 (5) = 6.035, p = 0.303, AIC = 51,047.39] (Figure 1c), but there were significant differences on the mean time in the 10 km events for males [x2 (5) = 26.388, p < 0.001, AIC = 66,358.82], where Germany, Italy and France presented significantly better times than the other countries (Figure 1d). Besides that, there was a significant effect of the advancement of the years on the mean time in the 10km events for females [x2 (1) = 50.672, p < 0.001], a reduction of 25.543 s/year [IC = −32.576/−18.510], and for males [x2 (1) = 76.638, p < 0.001], a reduction of 0.004 s/year [IC = −0. 005/−0.004] (Figure 2b).
No significant differences on the mean time of 25 km events were found based on nationality of the athlete for females [x2 (5) = 9.417, p = 0.094, AIC = 5617.71] (Figure 1e) and males [x2 (5) = 1.384, p = 0.926, AIC = 7755.62] (Figure 1f). Moreover, there was a significant effect of the advancement of the years on the mean time in the 25 km events for females [x2 (1) = 10.683, p = 0.001], a reduction of 65.069 s/year [IC = −104.089/−26.049], and for males [x2 (1) = 12.197, p < 0.001], a reduction of 60.996 s/year [IC = −95.227/−26.765] (Figure 2c).

3.2. Comparison between Top 10 Athletes from Each Country

Comparing the race time mean among the top ten athletes from each nationality, there were no significant differences on the mean time in the 5 km events for females [x2 (5) = 3.903, p =0.5.64, AIC = 2269.27] (Figure 3a) and males (Figure 3b) [x2 (5) = 2.002, p = 0.849, AIC = 2264.16] based on the nationality of the athlete. In addition, there were no significant effect of the advancement of the years on the mean time in the 5 km events for females [x2 (1) = 0.095, p = 0.759] and males [x2 (1) = 1.330, p = 0.249] (Figure 4a).
For 10 km events, no significant differences on the mean time were found based on the nationality of the athlete for females [x2 (5) = 1.936, p = 0.858, AIC = 2870.49] (Figure 3c), and males [x2 (5) = 6.852, p = 0.232, AIC = 2825.39] (Figure 3d). Besides that, there was a small but significant effect of the advancement of the years on the mean time in the 10 km events for females [x2 (1) = 29.530, p < 0.001], a reduction of 0.006 s/year [IC = −0.009/−0.004], and for males [x2 (1) = 34.709, p < 0.001], a reduction of 0.004 s/year [IC = −0.010/−0.005] (Figure 4b).
In the same way, no significant differences on the mean time of 25 km events were found based on nationality of the athlete for females [x2 (5) = 5.415, p = 0.367, AIC = 2933.24] (Figure 3e) and males [x2 (5) = 0.795, p = 0.977, AIC = 2934.96] (Figure 3f). Moreover, there were no significant effect of the advancement of the years on the mean time in the 25 km events for females [x2 (1) = 1.614, p = 0.204 and for males [x2 (1) = 1.359, p < 0.244] (Figure 4c).

4. Discussion

This study intended to investigate participation and performance trends by nationality of elite open-water swimmers competing in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km races held between 2000 and 2020. We hypothesized that the fastest swimmers competing in these races would originate from the USA and AUS, similarly to the observations of elite pool swimmers.
The main findings considering the entire sample were, (i) Germany, Italy and France presented significantly better times than the other countries in the 10 km races for males, (ii) there were no differences among the countries in the 10 km races for females, (iii) there were no differences among countries in the 5 km and 25 km races for both sexes, (iv) there were significant decreases among the race times over the last 20 years in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km races for both sexes, except for females in the 5 km event, and (v) male athletes presented better race times in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km races than females. Moreover, considering the top 10 athletes from each country, there were no differences among the countries in the 5 km, 10 km or 25 km races for both males and females.
A first important finding, considering the entire sample, was those male swimmers mainly from Europe were the fastest in 10 km events and the hypothesis that swimmers from the United States of America and Australia would be the fastest could not be confirmed. Regarding female athletes, there were no significant differences in swimming times between nations in the 10 km events, despite athletes from Germany, Italy, Brazil, Russia and USA featured more frequently in the top 10 positions. In the 5 km and 25 km events, there was no significant difference in the race times between athletes from different countries for both male and female athletes. Comparing the average time of the 10 best athletes from each country, there were also no significant differences between countries. Obviously, the density of high-performance athletes seems to be high in the countries where both all swimmers and the top ten per country were the fastest.
Previous studies investigated the aspect of nationality in long-distance open-water swimming events where non-elite swimmers were performing in a solo event such as the ‘English Channel Crossing” [17,18,20], the “Strait of Gibraltar” [19], the “Triple Crown” [8], “Manhattan Island Cross [6], “Maratona del Golfo Capri-Napoli” [7] and the “Robben Island Crossing” [21]. Although some swimmers from the USA and AUS did feature in the solo OWS events could possibly be attributed to non-elite nature of the events. Ultra-long OWS events are often performed on an individual basis by recreational swimmers or swimmers seeking an individual challenge. These events are often self-funded and as a result selects for a very specialized group who wish to complete these challenges, and not necessarily in the fastest time, therefore the characteristics of athletes are very different from those who participate in World Championships.
We found that female swimmers from Italy achieved the best performances and male swimmers from Italy the second-best performances behind Germany although they were not significantly faster than swimmers from other countries. The finding that Italians are among the best in this sport discipline is not accidentally. A very actual study investigating 9247 female and male swimmers competing between 1986 and 2019 in the 3000 m open-water swimming Master World Championships found that female and male swimmers from Italy were the fastest during this period of 27 years and 15 editions all over the world [22].
A potential explanation that swimmers from Italy and Germany are the best in the world in this sports discipline could be their national efforts. For example, Italy has its ‘Circuito Nuoto in Acque Libere’ where open-water swimmers are organized to compete in different formats of open-water swimming [23]. In addition, in Germany, open-water swimming is promoted with information about training, equipment and events [24].
In terms of performance, considering the top 10 results from each country there were no improvement in mean time in the last 20 years, and although a significant decrease in mean times was observed considering the entire sample, sometimes the effect was very small, for example in male 10 km events a reduction of 0.004 s/year was observed. In the 25 km events, there was a slightly greater decrease in time over the years (a reduction of 65.069 s/year for females and a reduction of 60.996 s/year for males).
In other open-water long-distance swimming events, a more expressive improvement in female and male performance has been reported [5,10,13,14,25]. A potential explanation for these small performance improvements over the years could be the relatively short time frame in this specific sports discipline (2000–2020) compared to other open-water long distance swimming events such as the ‘English Channel Crossing’ [17,26]. It is also interesting to note a large variation in finishing times among the years in the 5, 10 and 25 km events, which may be attributable to the differences in sea or weather conditions. For example, if in one year the athletes swim against the current and in the other year they swim with the current, there can be a great impact on the difference in performance between years for both sexes [27].
Moreover, it is important to consider that the FINA OWS events (5 km, 10 km and 25 km) are measured distances with very little variation compared to the ultra-long solo OWS events. Therefore, as the distances are pre-determined for the 5 km, 10 km and 25 km, swimmers and their coaches are able to plan and execute training accordingly in order to complete the races in the shortest time possible. In contract, the ultra-long solo OWS events require swimmers to complete a distance set between two geographic points [28], and as such may be influenced by several environmental factors, thus changing the objective to reflect completing the challenge rather than defeating a field of other competitors [29,30].
Another important finding was that men were faster than women in all three disciplines. Generally, male performance is better than female performance in a variety of sports disciplines [31,32,33,34]. However, in some long-distance open-water swimming events, women were faster than men [20]. A potential explanation that women were slower than men in these 5 km, 10 km and 25 km FINA races could be the fact that these events are not long enough for potential physiological and body composition differences to influence the outcome [7,8]. Previous studies examining ultra-long OWS athletes hypothesized that body composition may have an important role in marathon swimming performance [7,8]. However, FINA races have banned the use of high-performance wetsuits which could potentially mitigate any performance advantage that may be conferred by sex during these events [27]. Moreover, as the events are much shorter than other solo OWS events, which limits water immersion time, which has been reported as a factor affect endurance during marathon swimming [35,36,37].
A limitation of the present study is that the present study did not assess the effect of age in performance [38]. Thus, the results show comparisons of the best times obtained among all athletes, but it is possible that if the differences in performance of each nationality by age group are studied, different results will be found. A further limitation is that environmental aspects such as temperatures were not considered since open-water swimming races can be characterized by extreme environmental conditions (e.g., water temperature, tides, currents, and waves) which might have an impact on performance, influencing both tactics and pacing [39]. In addition, physiological and anthropometric aspects [40] and race strategies [41,42] were not considered. Finally, the race time of the athletes who competed each year were analyzed, but we are not aware of the possibility that there were athletes who competed in more than one competition.

5. Conclusions

In summary, male swimmers from Europe (Germany, Italy and France), are dominating the 10 km FINA races, but there are no specific country dominations in 5 km or 25 km events for both sexes. The results do not change when all swimmers and only the top ten per country are considered. Future studies might investigate the aspect of nationality in other swimming disciplines such as in master swimming, elite pool swimming and ice swimming.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.S., B.K., D.d.A.T.S. and M.S.A.; Formal analysis, M.S.A.; Writing—review & editing, R.L.V., C.A.B.d.L., L.H. and T.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Kanton St. Gallen, Switzerland (protocol code EKSG 01-06-2010 and 1 June 2010 of approval).

Informed Consent Statement

Patient consent was waived due to publicly available data.

Data Availability Statement

Data were obtained from https://www.fina.org and are available from the authors upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. FINA. 6th FINA World Championships 1991. 2021. Available online: https://www.fina.org/competitions/1064/6th-fina-world-championships-1991 (accessed on 5 May 2021).
  2. Swim England. An Introduction to Open Water Swimming. 2021. Available online: https://www.swimming.org/sport/open-water-swimming/ (accessed on 15 April 2021).
  3. FINA. FINA Open Water Swimming Guide. 2018. Available online: https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2021/02/03/58cd56ca-f5c2-4305-b5e7-aeb5a2c7caf3/ows_guide_new_lr2018.pdf (accessed on 5 April 2021).
  4. FINA. Competition Results. 2021. Available online: www.fina.org/latest-results (accessed on 5 April 2021).
  5. Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T.; Rüst, C.A. Women cross the ‘Catalina Channel’ faster than men. SpringerPlus 2015, 4, 332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T.; Lepers, R.; Rüst, C.A. Women Outperform Men in Ultradistance Swimming: The Manhattan Island Marathon Swim from 1983 to 2013. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2014, 9, 913–924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Rüst, C.A.; Lepers, R.; Rosemann, T.; Knechtle, B. Will women soon outperform men in open-water ultra-distance swimming in the ‘Maratona del Golfo Capri-Napoli’? SpringerPlus 2014, 3, 86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  8. Nikolaidis, P.; Di Gangi, S.; De Sousa, C.V.; Valeri, F.; Rosemann, T.; Knechtle, B. Sex difference in open-water swimming—The Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming 1875–2017. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0202003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Nikolaidis, P.T.; De Sousa, C.V.; Knechtle, B. Sex difference in long-distance open-water swimming races—Does nationality play a role? Res. Sports Med. 2018, 26, 332–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Zingg, M.A.; Rüst, C.A.; Rosemann, T.; Lepers, R.; Knechtle, B. Analysis of sex differences in open-water ultra-distance swimming performances in the FINA World Cup races in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km from 2000 to 2012. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil. 2014, 6, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Tipton, M.; Bradford, C. Moving in extreme environments: Open water swimming in cold and warm water. Extrem. Physiol. Med. 2014, 3, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Knechtle, B.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Rosemann, T.; Rüst, C.A. Performance trends in 3000 m open-water age group swimmers from 25 to 89 years competing in the FINA World Championships from 1992 to 2014. Res. Sports Med. 2016, 25, 67–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Allen, S.V.; Vandenbogaerde, T.J.; Hopkins, W.G. Career performance trajectories of Olympic swimmers: Benchmarks for talent development. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2014, 14, 643–651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Allen, S.V.; Vandenbogaerde, T.J.; Hopkins, W.G. The performance effect of centralizing a nation’s elite swim program. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2015, 10, 198–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Allen, S.V.; Vandenbogaerde, T.J.; Pyne, D.B.; Hopkins, W.G. Predicting a Nation’s Olympic-Qualifying Swimmers. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2015, 10, 431–435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Pyne, D.B.; Trewin, C.B.; Hopkins, W.G. Progression and variability of competitive performance of Olympic swimmers. J. Sports Sci. 2004, 22, 613–620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Rüst, C.A.; Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T. The Relationship between Nationality and Performance in Successful Attempts to Swim across the ‘English Channel’—A Retrospective Data Analysis from 1875 to 2012. Med. Sport. 2013, 17, 125–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T.; Rüst, C.A. Participation and performance trends by nationality in the ‘English Channel Swim’ from 1875 to 2013. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil. 2014, 6, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Nikolaidis, P.T.; Sousa, C.V.; Knechtle, B.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Sousa, C.V.; Knechtle, B. The relationship of wearing a wetsuit in long-distance open-water swimming with sex, age, calendar year, performance, and nationality—Crossing the “Strait of Gibraltar”. Open Access J. Sports Med. 2018, 9, 27–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Knechtle, B.; Dalamitros, A.A.; Barbosa, T.M.; Sousa, C.V.; Rosemann, T.; Nikolaidis, P.T. Sex Differences in Swimming Disciplines—Can Women Outperform Men in Swimming? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 3651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Hill, L. Participation and Performance during the Extreme Open-Water ‘Freedom Swim’ Race from 2001 to 2018. Eur. J. Phys. Educ. Sport Sci. 2018, 4, 58–72. [Google Scholar]
  22. Seffrin, A.; Lira, C.A.B.; Vancini, R.L.; Santos, D.A.T.; Moser, C.; Villiger, E.; Rosemann, T.; Knechtle, B.; Hill, L.; Andrade, M.S. Italians Are the Fastest 3000 m Open-Water Master Swimmers in the World. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Italian Open Water Tour. Available online: https://italianopenwatertour.com (accessed on 24 July 2021).
  24. Open Water Schwimmen. Available online: www.openwaterschwimmen.com/news/categories/open-water-schwimmen (accessed on 24 July 2021).
  25. Baldassarre, R.; Bonifazi, M.; Piacentini, M.F. Pacing profile in the main international open-water swimming competitions. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2019, 19, 422–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Eichenberger, E.; Knechtle, B.; Knechtle, P.; Rüst, C.A.; Rosemann, T.; Lepers, R. Best performances by men and women open-water swimmers during the ‘English Channel Swim’ from 1900 to 2010. J. Sports Sci. 2012, 30, 1295–1301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  27. FINA. Open Water Swimming Manual 2020 Edition. 2020. Available online: https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2021/02/03/84a6f630-7803-4915-8b27-a95e986cefc1/fina_ow_manual_2020_14may2020.pdf (accessed on 7 April 2021).
  28. Bradford, C.D.; Gerrard, D.F.; Cotter, J.D. Open-Water Swimming. In Heat Stress in Sport and Exercise; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2019; pp. 263–281. [Google Scholar]
  29. Moles, K. The Social World of Outdoor Swimming: Cultural Practices, Shared Meanings, and Bodily Encounters. J. Sport Soc. Issues 2021, 45, 20–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Throsby, K. Immersion: Marathon Swimming, Embodiment and Identity; Manchester University Press: Manchester, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  31. Suter, D.; Sousa, C.V.; Hill, L.; Scheer, V.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Knechtle, B. Even pacing is associated with faster finishing times in ultramarathon distance trail running—The “ultra-trail du Mont Blanc” 2008–2019. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7074. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Knechtle, B.; Scheer, V.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Sousa, C.V. Participation and performance trends in the oldest 100-km ultramarathon in the world. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  33. Rüst, C.A.; Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T.; Lepers, R. Men Cross America Faster Than Women—The “Race Across America” From 1982 to 2012. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2013, 8, 611–617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Baumgartner, S.; Sousa, C.V.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Knechtle, B. Can the Performance Gap between Women and Men be Reduced in Ultra-Cycling? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Knechtle, B.; Stjepanovic, M.; Knechtle, C.; Rosemann, T.; Sousa, C.V.; Nikolaidis, P.T. Physiological Responses to Swimming Repetitive “Ice Miles”. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2021, 35, 487–494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Crow, B.T.; Matthay, E.C.; Schatz, S.P.; DeBeliso, M.D.; Nuckton, T.J. The Body Mass Index of San Francisco Cold-water Swimmers: Comparisons to U.S. National and Local Populations, and Pool Swimmers. Int. J. Exerc. Sci. 2017, 10, 1250. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  37. Checinska-Maciejewska, Z.; Niepolski, L.; Checinska, A.; Korek, E.; Kolodziejczak, B.; Kopczynski, Z.; Krauss, H.; Pruszynska-Oszmalek, E.; Kolodziejski, P.; Gibas-Dorna, M. Regular cold water swimming during winter time affects resting hematological parameters and serum erythropoietin. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2019, 70, 747–756. [Google Scholar]
  38. Baldassarre, R.; Bonifazi, M.; Zamparo, P.; Piacentini, M.F. Characteristics and Challenges of Open-Water Swimming Performance: A Review. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2017, 10, 1275–1284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Baldassarre, R.; Pennacchi, M.; La Torre, A.; Bonifazi, M.; Piacentini, M.F. Do the Fastest Open-Water Swimmers have A Higher Speed in Middle- and Long-Distance Pool Swimming Events? J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2019, 4, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. VanHeest, J.L.; Mahoney, C.E.; Herr, L. Characteristics of elite open-water swimmers. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2004, 18, 302–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Veiga, S.; Rodriguez, L.; González-Frutos, P.; Navandar, A. Race Strategies of Open Water Swimmers in the 5-km, 10-km, and 25-km Races of the 2017 FINA World Swimming Championships. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  42. Rodriguez, L.; Veiga, S. Effect of the Pacing Strategies on the Open-Water 10-km World Swimming Championships. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2018, 13, 694–700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ijerph 18 11369 g001 550
Figure 1. Mean race times and significant differences among nationalities, regarding the entire sample, in the female and male 5, 10 and 25 km events. * p < 0.005.
Figure 1. Mean race times and significant differences among nationalities, regarding the entire sample, in the female and male 5, 10 and 25 km events. * p < 0.005.
Ijerph 18 11369 g001
Ijerph 18 11369 g002 550
Figure 2. Mean values, of entire sample results, for each race over the years for both sexes in 5, 10 and 25 km events.
Figure 2. Mean values, of entire sample results, for each race over the years for both sexes in 5, 10 and 25 km events.
Ijerph 18 11369 g002
Ijerph 18 11369 g003 550
Figure 3. Mean race times for each nationality, regarding the top 10 sample, in the female and male 5, 10 and 25 km events.
Figure 3. Mean race times for each nationality, regarding the top 10 sample, in the female and male 5, 10 and 25 km events.
Ijerph 18 11369 g003
Ijerph 18 11369 g004 550
Figure 4. Mean values, of top 10 sample results, for each race over the years for both sexes in 5, 10 and 25 km events.
Figure 4. Mean values, of top 10 sample results, for each race over the years for both sexes in 5, 10 and 25 km events.
Ijerph 18 11369 g004
Table
Table 1. Sum of nationality that figure in the top 10 times in each event by sex.
Table 1. Sum of nationality that figure in the top 10 times in each event by sex.
DistanceFemale NationalityFemale (n)Male NationalityMale (n)
5 kmItaly31Italy35
Germany19Germany26
Russia19Russia25
USA17France19
Spain12Spain14
Others82Others61
10 kmGermany29Germany33
Italy25Italy28
Brazil22Russia17
Russia14France14
USA13Brazil13
Others87Others85
25 kmRussia28Italy30
Italy27France26
Germany21Russia24
Spain14Germany12
USA11Czech R.9
Others68Others68
Table
Table 2. Race time in each event by sex.
Table 2. Race time in each event by sex.
Sex
FemaleMale
Eventn (%)Timen (%)Timep Value *
5 km740
(47)		01:02:40 ± 04:29 (00:55:40/01:31:43)835
(53)		00:58:07 ± 04:50 (00:51:17/01:47:37)<0.001
10 km3227
(43.2)		02:07:29 ± 11:20 (01:37:29/03:01:00)4249
(56.8)		01:58:27 ± 10:27 (01:29:51/02:46:56)<0.001
25 km323
(42.1)		05:37:36 ± 24:35 (04:18:28/07:02:38)445
(59.1)		05:12:36 ± 24:34 (04:10:41/06:39:33)<0.001
n = sample size; % = percentage values; * p < 0.05 (race time for male group was significantly lower than for female group).
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Seffrin, A.; Knechtle, B.; Vancini, R.L.; de Assis Teles Santos, D.; de Lira, C.A.B.; Hill, L.; Rosemann, T.; Andrade, M.S. Origin of the Fastest 5 km, 10 km and 25 km Open-Water Swimmers—An Analysis from 20 Years and 9819 Swimmers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11369. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111369

AMA Style

Seffrin A, Knechtle B, Vancini RL, de Assis Teles Santos D, de Lira CAB, Hill L, Rosemann T, Andrade MS. Origin of the Fastest 5 km, 10 km and 25 km Open-Water Swimmers—An Analysis from 20 Years and 9819 Swimmers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(21):11369. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111369

Chicago/Turabian Style

Seffrin, Aldo, Beat Knechtle, Rodrigo Luiz Vancini, Douglas de Assis Teles Santos, Claudio Andre Barbosa de Lira, Lee Hill, Thomas Rosemann, and Marilia Santos Andrade. 2021. "Origin of the Fastest 5 km, 10 km and 25 km Open-Water Swimmers—An Analysis from 20 Years and 9819 Swimmers" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 21: 11369. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111369

APA Style

Seffrin, A., Knechtle, B., Vancini, R. L., de Assis Teles Santos, D., de Lira, C. A. B., Hill, L., Rosemann, T., & Andrade, M. S. (2021). Origin of the Fastest 5 km, 10 km and 25 km Open-Water Swimmers—An Analysis from 20 Years and 9819 Swimmers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(21), 11369. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111369

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop