Adverse Childhood Experiences Distinguish Violent Juvenile Sexual Offenders’ Victim Typologies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
The Current Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Data
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Victim–Offender Relationship
2.2.2. Key Independent Measure: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE)
2.2.3. Out-of-Home Child Welfare Placements
2.2.4. Mental Health Problem
2.2.5. Current Alcohol Use
2.2.6. Current Drug Use
2.2.7. Peer Associations
2.2.8. Difficult Temperament
2.2.9. Exposure to Community Violence
2.2.10. Demographics
2.3. Analytic Strategy
3. Results
3.1. Identification of Latent Class Solution
3.2. Victim Associations among Classes of Youth with Violent Sexual Offending
3.3. Covariates of Latent Class Membership
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Finkelhor, D.; Ormrod, R.; Chaffin, M. Juveniles who commit sex offenses against minors. Off. Justice Programs Juv. Justice Bull. 2009, NCJ227763, 1–12. [Google Scholar]
- Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book. Available online: https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/victims/qa02404.asp?qaDate=2016#:~:text=Among%20those%20victimized%20in%20violent,were%20victims%20of%20sexual%20assault (accessed on 15 September 2021).
- Calley, N.G. Integrating theory and research: The development of a research-based treatment program for juvenile male sex offenders. J. Couns. Dev. 2007, 85, 131–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drury, A.; Heinrichs, T.; Elbert, M.; Tahja, K.; DeLisi, M.; Caropreso, D. Adverse childhood experiences, paraphilia’s, and serious criminal violence among federal sex offenders. J. Crim. Psychol. 2017, 7, 105–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fox, B.H.; DeLisi, M. From criminological heterogeneity to coherent classes: Developing a typology of juvenile sex offenders. Youth Violence Juv. Justice 2018, 16, 299–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Längtröm, N.; Grann, M.; Lindblad, F. A preliminary typology of young sex offenders. J. Adolesc. 2000, 23, 319–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCuish, E.C.; Cale, J.; Corrado, R.R. Abuse experiences of family members, child maltreatment, and the development of sex offending among incarcerated adolescent males: Differences between adolescent sex offenders and adolescent non-sex offenders. Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol. 2017, 61, 127–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCuish, E.C.; Lussier, P.; Corrado, R.R. Criminal careers of juvenile sex and non-sex offenders: Evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. Youth Violence Juv. Justice 2016, 14, 199–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rice, M.; Harris, G.T. Cross-validation and extension of the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide for child molesters and rapists. Law Hum. Behav. 1997, 21, 231–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seto, M.C.; Lalumiére, M.L. What is so special about male adolescent sex offending? A review and test of explanations through meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 2010, 136, 526–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Terry, K.J. Sexual Offenses and Offenders: Theory, Practice, and Policy; Wadsworth: Belmont, CA, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Prentky, R.; Harris, B.; Frizzell, K.; Righthand, S. An actuarial procedure for assessing risk in juvenile sex offenders. Sex. Abus. J. Res. Treat. 2000, 12, 71–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robertiello, G.; Terry, K.J. Can we profile sex offenders? A review of sex offender typologies. Aggress. Violent Behav. 2007, 12, 508–518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fox, B.H. What makes a difference? Evaluating the key distinctions and predictors of sexual and non-sexual offending among male and female juvenile offenders. J. Crim. Pscyhol. 2017, 7, 134–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DeLisi, M.; Alcala, J.; Kusow, A.; Hochstetler, A.; Heirigs, M.H.; Caudill, J.W.; Trulson, C.R.; Baglivio, M.T. Adverse childhood experiences, commitment offense, and race/ethnicity: Are the effects crime-, race-, and ethnicity-specific? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hunter, J.A.; Figueredo, A.J.; Malamuth, N.M.; Becker, J.V. Juvenile sex offenders: Toward the development of a typology. Sex. Abus. 2003, 15, 27–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baglivio, M.T.; Epps, N. The interrelatedness of adverse childhood experiences among high-risk juvenile offenders. Youth Violence Juv. Justice 2016, 14, 179–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dong, M.; Anda, R.F.; Felitti, V.J.; Dube, S.R.; Williamson, D.F.; Thompson, T.J.; Loo, C.M.; Giles, W.H. The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abus. Negl. 2004, 28, 771–784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hughes, K.; Bellis, M.A.; Hardcastle, K.A.; Sethi, D.; Butchart, A.; Mikton, C.; Jones, L.; Dunne, M.P. The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systemic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health 2017, 2, e356–e366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Felitti, V.J.; Anda, R.F.; Nordenberg, D.; Williamson, D.F.; Spitz, A.M.; Edwards, V.; Koss, M.P.; Marks, J.S. Relationship between child abuse and household dysfunction of many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. Am. J. Prev. Med. 1998, 14, 245–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baglivio, M.T.; Wolff, K.T.; Epps, N. Violent juveniles’ adverse childhood experiences: Differentiating victim groups. J. Crim. Justice 2021, 72, 101769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reid, J.A.; Baglivio, M.T.; Piquero, A.R.; Greenwald, M.A.; Epps, N. No youth left behind to human trafficking: Exploring profiles of risk. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 2019, 89, 704–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wolff, K.T.; Cuevas, C.; Intravia, J.; Baglivio, M.T.; Epps, N. The effects of neighborhood context on exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACE) among adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system: Latent classes and contextual effects. J. Adolesc. 2018, 47, 2279–2300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baglivio, M.T.; Epps, N.; Swartz, K.; Huq, M.S.; Sheer, A.; Hardt, N.S. The prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) in the lives of juvenile offenders. J. Juv. Justice 2014, 3, 1–23. [Google Scholar]
- Craig, J.M.; Baglivio, M.T.; Wolff, K.T.; Piquero, A.R.; Epps, N. Do social bonds buffer the impact of adverse childhood experiences on reoffending? Youth Violence Juv. Justice 2017, 15, 3–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fox, B.H.; Perez, N.; Cass, E.; Baglivio, M.T.; Epps, N. Trauma changes everything: Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders. Child Abus. Negl. 2015, 46, 163–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baglivio, M.T.; Wolff, K.T. Positive childhood experiences (PCE): Cumulative resiliency in the face of adverse childhood experiences. Youth Violence Juv. Justice 2021, 19, 139–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levenson, J.S.; Baglivio, M.T.; Wolff, K.T.; Epps, N.; Royall, W.; Gomez, K.C.; Kaplan, D. You learn what you live: Prevalence of childhood adversity in the lives of juveniles arrested for sexual offenses. Adv. Soc. Work 2018, 18, 313–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- DeLisi, M.; Vaughn, M.G. Foundation for a temperament-based theory of antisocial behavior and criminal justice involvement. J. Crim. Just. 2014, 42, 10–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hagenaars, J.A.; McCutcheon, A.L. (Eds.) Applied Latent Class Analysis; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- McCutcheon, A.L. Latent Class Analysis; Sage: Beverly Hills, CA, USA, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Schwarz, G. Estimating the dimension of a model. Ann. Stat. 1978, 6, 461–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sclove, S.L. Application of model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika 1987, 52, 333–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lo, Y.; Mendell, N.; Rubin, D. Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika 2001, 88, 767–778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nylund, K.L.; Asparouhov, T.; Muthén, B.O. Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Struct. Equ. Modeling 2007, 14, 535–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Celeux, G.; Soromenho, G. An entropy criterion for assessing the number of clusters in a mixture model. J. Classif. 1996, 13, 195–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Muthén, L.K.; Muthén, B.O. Mplus User’s Guide; Muthén & Muthén: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preventing Adverse Childhood Experiences: Leveraging the Best Available Evidence; National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2019.
- Wolff, K.T.; Baglivio, M.T.; Piquero, A.R. The relationship between adverse childhood experiences and recidivism in a sample of juvenile offenders in community-based treatment. Int. J. Offender Ther. 2017, 61, 1210–1242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Anda, R.F.; Felitti, V.J.; Bremner, J.D.; Walker, J.D.; Whitfield, C.; Perry, B.D.; Dube, S.R.; Giles, W.H. The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2006, 256, 174–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bremner, D. Long-term effects of childhood abuse on brain and neurobiology. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 2003, 12, 271–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heim, C.; Shugart, M.; Craighead, W.E.; Nemeroff, C.B. Neurobiological and psychiatric consequences of child abuse and neglect. Dev. Psychobiol. 2010, 52, 671–690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larkin, H.; Felitti, V.J.; Anda, R.F. Social work and adverse childhood experiences research: Implications for practice and health policy. Soc. Work Public Health 2014, 43, 25–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finkelhor, D.; Shattuck, A.; Turner, H.A.; Hamby, S. Improving the adverse childhood experiences study scale. JAMA Pediatr. 2012, 14, 245–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Mean | SD | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Victim Associations | ||||
Stranger | 0.097 | 0.447 | 0 | 9 |
Acquaintance | 0.459 | 0.908 | 0 | 17 |
Schoolmate | 0.264 | 0.715 | 0 | 11 |
Program Youth | 0.014 | 0.195 | 0 | 10 |
Neighbor | 0.087 | 0.456 | 0 | 10 |
Close Friend | 0.044 | 0.735 | 0 | 51 |
Partner | 0.052 | 0.223 | 0 | 1 |
Guardian | 0.005 | 0.072 | 0 | 1 |
Sibling | 0.181 | 0.385 | 0 | 1 |
Child | 0.002 | 0.044 | 0 | 1 |
Other Relative | 0.240 | 0.811 | 0 | 20 |
Total Victims | 1.44 | 1.82 | 0 | 51 |
Youth Characteristics | ||||
Age | 15.23 | 1.67 | 9 | 20 |
Male | 0.948 | - | 0 | 1 |
White | 0.412 | - | 0 | 1 |
Black | 0.485 | - | 0 | 1 |
Hispanic | 0.126 | - | 0 | 1 |
Age at First Offense | 2.08 | 1.1 | 1 | 5 |
History of Children Family Services | 0.201 | - | 0 | 1 |
Mental Health Problems | 0.206 | - | 0 | 1 |
Current Alcohol Use | 0.104 | 0.373 | 0 | 2 |
Current Drug Use | 0.251 | 0.583 | 0 | 2 |
Peer Associates | 0.123 | 0.415 | 0 | 2 |
Temperament Index | 0 | 0.681 | −1 | 3 |
Exposure to Community Violence | 0.420 | - | 0 | 1 |
Individual ACEs | ||||
Emotional Abuse | 0.206 | - | 0 | 1 |
Physical Abuse | 0.211 | - | 0 | 1 |
Sexual Abuse | 0.146 | - | 0 | 1 |
Emotional Neglect | 0.197 | - | 0 | 1 |
Physical Neglect | 0.113 | - | 0 | 1 |
Family Violence | 0.385 | - | 0 | 1 |
Household Substance Abuse | 0.131 | - | 0 | 1 |
Household Mental Health Problems | 0.058 | - | 0 | 1 |
Divorce | 0.851 | - | 0 | 1 |
Household Incarceration History | 0.461 | - | 0 | 1 |
Cumulative ACE Score | 2.76 | 1.94 | 0 | 10 |
Model | BIC | ABIC | Entropy | LMR LRT (p) | BLRT (p) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2-class | 30,186.99 | 30,266.16 | 0.970 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
3-class | 28,356.71 | 28,161.51 | 0.981 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
4-class | 27,775.07 | 27,625.72 | 0.989 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
5-class | 26,790.29 | 26,602.81 | 0.994 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
6-class | 26,281.655 | 26,056.04 | 0.999 | 0.170 | 0.000 |
Class 1: Schoolmate Victims n = 999 | Class 2: Stranger Victims n = 355 | Class 3: Acquaintance Victims n = 1735 | Class 4: Sibling Victims n = 1004 | Class 5: Diverse Victims n = 715 | Class 6: Other Relative Victims n = 731 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Victims | 1.496 | 1.459 | 1.495 | 1.262 | 1.361 | 1.590 |
Stranger | 0.000 | 1.383 | 0.020 | 0.011 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Acquaintance | 0.053 | 0.000 | 1.384 | 0.090 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Schoolmate | 1.419 | 0.034 | 0.000 | 0.019 | 0.000 | 0.018 |
Program Youth | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.098 | 0.001 |
Neighbor | 0.010 | 0.008 | 0.022 | 0.023 | 0.557 | 0.012 |
Close Friend | 0.003 | 0.011 | 0.006 | 0.004 | 0.306 | 0.001 |
Partner | 0.005 | 0.000 | 0.010 | 0.007 | 0.358 | 0.005 |
Guardian | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.004 | 0.029 | 0.001 |
Sibling | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 1.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Child | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.013 | 0.000 |
Other Relative | 0.000 | 0.020 | 0.052 | 0.099 | 0.000 | 1.550 |
Class 1: Schoolmate Victims n = 999 | Class 2: Stranger Victims n = 355 | Class 4: Sibling Victims n = 1004 | Class 5: Diverse Victims n = 715 | Class 6: Other Relative Victims n = 731 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RRR/95% CI | RRR/95% CI | RRR/95% CI | RRR/95% CI | RRR/95% CI | ||||||
Age | 0.919 ** | 0.869–0.971 | 0.837 *** | 0.768–0.913 | 0.835 *** | 0.788–0.884 | 1.047 | 0.982–1.118 | 0.962 | 0.904–1.023 |
Male | 0.927 | 0.650–1.321 | 2.926 ** | 1.336–6.411 | 2.019 *** | 1.369–2.979 | 0.994 | 0.673–1.469 | 0.973 | 0.672–1.409 |
Black | 2.213 *** | 1.832–2.673 | 1.832 *** | 1.390–2.415 | 0.537 *** | 0.447–0.646 | 0.660 *** | 0.540–0.807 | 1.122 | 0.921–1.367 |
Hispanic | 1.832 *** | 1.394–2.408 | 1.796 ** | 1.225–2.634 | 0.888 | 0.679–1.159 | 1.130 | 0.859–1.487 | 1.520 ** | 1.148–2.012 |
Age at First Offense | 0.882 ** | 0.807–0.964 | 1.288 *** | 1.137–1.459 | 1.100 * | 1.005–1.203 | 1.097 * | 1.003–1.200 | 1.011 | 0.921–1.110 |
History of Children Family Services | 0.735 * | 0.572–0.944 | 1.003 | 0.711–1.415 | 1.469 *** | 1.184–1.824 | 0.748 * | 0.570–0.980 | 1.096 | 0.854–1.406 |
Mental Health Problems | 1.001 | 0.799–1.252 | 0.706 * | 0.502–0.994 | 0.997 | 0.809–1.229 | 1.031 | 0.814–1.306 | 0.975 | 0.767–1.240 |
Current Alcohol Use | 1.085 | 0.853–1.381 | 1.231 | 0.908–1.668 | 0.877 | 0.666–1.154 | 0.879 | 0.680–1.136 | 0.937 | 0.693–1.266 |
Current Drug Use | 0.999 | 0.861–1.160 | 1.111 | 0.905–1.363 | 0.660 *** | 0.548–0.795 | 0.926 | 0.784–1.094 | 0.697 *** | 0.573–0.848 |
Peer Associations | 0.938 | 0.778–1.130 | 0.923 | 0.713–1.197 | 0.711 ** | 0.558–0.906 | 1.017 | 0.828–1.249 | 0.642 ** | 0.489–0.843 |
Temperament Index | 0.966 | 0.830–1.123 | 1.177 | 0.950–1.458 | 0.781 ** | 0.671–0.910 | 0.957 | 0.809–1.131 | 0.738 *** | 0.622–0.876 |
Exposure to Community Violence | 0.978 | 0.828–1.156 | 1.350 * | 1.062–1.716 | 0.867 | 0.730–1.030 | 1.167 | 0.970–1.403 | 0.936 | 0.778–1.126 |
Emotional Abuse | 1.389 * | 1.009–1.911 | 0.908 | 0.579–1.425 | 1.012 | 0.771–1.328 | 1.102 | 0.802–1.515 | 1.170 | 0.853–1.606 |
Physical Abuse | 1.099 | 0.822–1.468 | 0.975 | 0.645–1.473 | 1.482 ** | 1.144–1.920 | 1.297 | 0.967–1.740 | 1.057 | 0.784–1.425 |
Sexual Abuse | 0.614 ** | 0.444–0.850 | 0.871 | 0.562–1.348 | 2.022 *** | 1.598–2.558 | 0.831 | 0.611–1.130 | 1.205 | 0.906–1.604 |
Emotional Neglect | 1.076 | 0.864–1.341 | 1.363 * | 1.008–1.844 | 1.258 * | 1.015–1.560 | 1.201 | 0.947–1.523 | 1.176 | 0.926–1.494 |
Physical Neglect | 0.840 | 0.609–1.160 | 0.905 | 0.579–1.414 | 0.677 ** | 0.515–0.889 | 0.879 | 0.634–1.218 | 0.954 | 0.701–1.300 |
Family Violence | 0.763 | 0.562–1.035 | 0.905 | 0.592–1.385 | 1.287 | 0.989–1.676 | 0.964 | 0.711–1.308 | 1.081 | 0.802–1.459 |
Household Substance Abuse | 1.036 | 0.794–1.350 | 0.762 | 0.505–1.150 | 0.986 | 0.765–1.271 | 1.428 ** | 1.096–1.862 | 1.176 | 0.895–1.547 |
Household Mental Health Problems | 1.019 | 0.708–1.468 | 1.031 | 0.604–1.762 | 0.866 | 0.612–1.226 | 0.704 | 0.465–1.068 | 1.301 | 0.910–1.860 |
Divorce | 0.766 * | 0.616–0.952 | 1.015 | 0.726–1.419 | 2.104 *** | 1.596–2.773 | 0.920 | 0.723–1.171 | 1.078 | 0.837–1.389 |
Household Incarceration History | 0.826 * | 0.696–0.981 | 0.898 | 0.701–1.150 | 0.886 | 0.744–1.055 | 0.913 | 0.753–1.105 | 1.035 | 0.857–1.250 |
Constant | 2.641 * | 1.132–6.159 | 0.407 | 0.099–1.682 | 2.071 | 0.851–5.044 | 0.199 ** | 0.073–0.542 | 0.618 | 0.241–1.584 |
Association between Cumulative ACE Score and Latent Class Membership | ||
---|---|---|
RRR/95% CI | ||
Class 1: Schoolmate Victims | 0.917 * | 0.869–0.968 |
Class 2: Stranger Victims | 0.943 | 0.872–1.019 |
Class 3: Acquaintance Victims | Reference Category | |
Class 4: Sibling Victims | 1.206 ** | 1.147–1.268 |
Class 5: Diverse Victims | 1.027 | 0.970–1.087 |
Class 5: Other Relative Victims | 1.106 ** | 1.045–1.170 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Baglivio, M.T.; Wolff, K.T. Adverse Childhood Experiences Distinguish Violent Juvenile Sexual Offenders’ Victim Typologies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111345
Baglivio MT, Wolff KT. Adverse Childhood Experiences Distinguish Violent Juvenile Sexual Offenders’ Victim Typologies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(21):11345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111345
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaglivio, Michael T., and Kevin T. Wolff. 2021. "Adverse Childhood Experiences Distinguish Violent Juvenile Sexual Offenders’ Victim Typologies" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 21: 11345. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111345