Climate Change and Child Health Inequality: A Review of Reviews
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Studies
3.2. Child Health Inequalities
3.2.1. Within Country Inequalities
3.2.2. Between Country Inequalities
3.2.3. Geographic Inequality
3.2.4. Intergenerational Inequity
3.3. Explanatory Mechanisms
3.4. Climate Change
3.5. Childhood and Child Health
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health Equity Through Action on the Social Determinants of Health. Final Report of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Spencer, N.; Raman, S.; O’Hare, B.; Tamburlini, G. Addressing inequities in child health and development: Towards social justice. BMJ Paediatr. Open 2019, 3, e000503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- UNICEF. Progress for Children No.11. Beyond Averages: Learning from the MDGs; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- da Silva, I.C.M.; França, G.V.; Barros, A.J.; Amouzou, A.; Krasevec, J.; Victora, C. Socioeconomic Inequalities Persist Despite Declining Stunting Prevalence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. J. Nutr. 2018, 148, 254–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yaya, S.; Bishwajit, G. Burden of Acute Respiratory Infections Among Under-Five Children in Relation to Household Wealth and Socioeconomic Status in Bangladesh. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2019, 4, 36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pinzón-Rondón, A.M.; Zárate-Ardila, C.; Hoyos-Martínez, A.; Ruiz-Sternberg, Á.M.; Velez-Van-Meerbeke, A. Country characteristics and acute diarrhea in children from developing nations: A multilevel study. BMC Public Health 2015, 15, 811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Njau, J.D.; Stephenson, R.; Menon, M.; Kachur, S.P.; A McFarland, D. Exploring the impact of targeted distribution of free bed nets on households bed net ownership, socio-economic disparities and childhood malaria infection rates: Analysis of national malaria survey data from three sub-Saharan Africa countries. Malar. J. 2013, 12, 245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hajat, A.; Hsia, C.; O’Neill, M.S. Socioeconomic Disparities and Air Pollution Exposure: A Global Review. Curr. Environ. Health Rep. 2015, 2, 440–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pollard, C.M.; Booth, S. Food Insecurity and Hunger in Rich Countries—It Is Time for Action against Inequality. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Harker, L. Chance of a Lifetime: Impact of Bad Housing on Children’s Lives; Shelter: London, UK, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L.; Gomis, M.I.; et al. (Eds.) Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- McMichael, A.J.; Campbell-Lendrum, D.H.; Corvalan, C.F.; Ebi, K.L.; Githeko, A.; Scheraga, J.D.; Woodward, A. Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Costello, A.; Abbas, M.; Allen, A.; Ball, S.; Bell, S.; Bellamy, R.; Friel, S.; Groce, N.; Johnson, A.; Kett, M.; et al. Managing the health effects of climate change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission. Lancet 2009, 373, 1693–1733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Helldén, D.; Andersson, C.; Nilsson, M.; Ebi, K.L.; Friberg, P.; Alfvén, T. Climate change and child health: A scoping review and an expanded conceptual framework. Lancet Planet. Health 2021, 5, e164–e175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arksey, H.; O’Malley, L. Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 2005, 8, 19–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Levac, D.; Colquhoun, H.; O’Brien, K.K. Scoping studies: Advancing the methodology. Implement. Sci. 2010, 5, 69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Munn, Z.; Peters, M.D.J.; Stern, C.; Tufanaru, C.; McArthur, A.; Aromataris, E. Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 2018, 18, 143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fakoya, O.A.; McCorry, N.K.; Donnelly, M. Loneliness and social isolation interventions for older adults: A scoping review of reviews. BMC Public Health 2020, 20, 129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Enns, J.E.; Holmqvist, M.; Wener, P.; Halas, G.; Rothney, J.; Schultz, A.; Goertzen, L.; Katz, A. Mapping interventions that promote mental health in the general population: A scoping review of reviews. Prev. Med. 2016, 87, 70–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- OHCHR. Convention on the Rights of the Child 1990. Available online: https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx (accessed on 16 June 2021).
- Benevolenza, M.A.; DeRigne, L. The impact of climate change and natural disasters on vulnerable populations: A systematic review of literature. J. Hum. Behav. Soc. Environ. 2019, 29, 266–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phalkey, R.K.; Aranda-Jan, C.; Marx, S.; Höfle, B.; Sauerborn, R. Systematic review of current efforts to quantify the impacts of climate change on undernutrition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, E4522–E4529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chersich, M.F.; Pham, M.D.; Areal, A.; Haghighi, M.M.; Manyuchi, A.; Swift, C.P.; Wernecke, B.; Robinson, M.; Hetem, R.; Boeckmann, M.; et al. Associations between high temperatures in pregnancy and risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirths: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2020, 371, m3811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lieber, M.; Chin-Hong, P.; Kelly, K.; Dandu, M.; Weiser, S.D. A systematic review and meta-analysis assessing the impact of droughts, flooding, and climate variability on malnutrition. Glob. Public Health 2020, 1, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahdoot, S.; Pacheco, S.E.; The Council on Environmental Health Global. Climate Change and Children’s Health. Pediatrics 2015, 136, e1468–e1484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Assembly of First Nations. The Health of First Nations Children n.d.:28. Available online: https://www.afn.ca/uploads/files/rp-discussion_paper_re_childrens_health_and_the_environment.pdf (accessed on 25 November 2019).
- Clemens, V.; Von Hirschhausen, E.; Fegert, J.M. Report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change: Implications for the mental health policy of children and adolescents in Europe—A scoping review. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2020, 1, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ebi, K.L.; Paulson, J.A. Climate Change and Children. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 2007, 54, 213–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goldhagen, J.L.; Shenoda, S.; Oberg, C.; Mercer, R.; Kadir, A.; Raman, S.; Waterston, T.; Spencer, N.J. Rights, justice, and equity: A global agenda for child health and wellbeing. Lancet Child Adolesc. Health 2020, 4, 80–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kistin, E.J.; Fogarty, J.; Pokrasso, R.S.; McCally, M.; McCornick, P.G. Climate change, water resources and child health. Arch. Dis. Child. 2010, 95, 545–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levy, B.S.; Patz, J.A. Climate Change, Human Rights, and Social Justice. Ann. Glob. Health 2015, 81, 310–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McMichael, A.J. Climate Change and Children: Health Risks of Abatement Inaction, Health Gains from Action. Children 2014, 1, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Parkes, M.; de Leeuw, S.; Greenwood, M. Warming Up to the Embodied Context of First Nations Health: A Critical Intervention into and Analysis of Health and Climate Change Research. Int. Public Health J. 2010, 2, 477–485. [Google Scholar]
- Patz, J.A.; Gibbs, H.K.; Foley, J.A.; Rogers, J.V.; Smith, K.R. Climate Change and Global Health: Quantifying a Growing Ethical Crisis. EcoHealth 2007, 4, 397–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Philipsborn, R.P.; Chan, K. Climate Change and Global Child Health. Pediatrics 2018, 141, 10–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rylander, C.; Odland, J.; Øyvind; Sandanger, T.M. Climate change and the potential effects on maternal and pregnancy outcomes: An assessment of the most vulnerable–The mother, fetus, and newborn child. Glob. Health Action 2013, 6, 19538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sheffield, P.E.; Landrigan, P.J. Global Climate Change and Children’s Health: Threats and Strategies for Prevention. Environ. Health Perspect. 2011, 119, 291–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderko, L.; Chalupka, S.; Du, M.; Hauptman, M. Climate changes reproductive and children’s health: A review of risks, exposures, and impacts. Pediatr. Res. 2019, 87, 414–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wooldridge, G.; Murthy, S. Pediatric Critical Care and the Climate Emergency: Our Responsibilities and a Call for Change. Front. Pediatr. 2020, 8, 472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olson, D.M.; Metz, G.A. Climate change is a major stressor causing poor pregnancy outcomes and child development. F1000Research 2020, 9, 1222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davies, G.I.; McIver, L.; Kim, Y.; Hashizume, M.; Iddings, S.; Chan, V. Water-Borne Diseases and Extreme Weather Events in Cambodia: Review of Impacts and Implications of Climate Change. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 191–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bennett, C.M.; Friel, S. Impacts of Climate Change on Inequities in Child Health. Children 2014, 1, 461–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atwoli, L.; Baqui, A.H.; Benfield, T.; Bosurgi, R.; Godlee, F.; Hancocks, S.; Horton, R.; Laybourn-Langton, L.; Monteiro, C.A.; Norman, I.; et al. Call for emergency action to limit global temperature increases, restore biodiversity, and protect health. J. Health Popul. Nutr. 2021, 40, 39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ragavan, M.I.; Marcil, L.; Garg, A. Climate Change as a Social Determinant of Health. Pediatrics 2020, 145, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Inclusion Criteria: |
Reviews, published to present, reviewing the literature on the relationship of climate change and its consequences and inequality in health outcomes among children aged 0–18 years. Reviews must report on the effect of climate change and its consequences on one or more health outcomes in different social groups and/or between high and low/middle income countries or geographical locations |
Exclusion Criteria: |
Reviews of literature on the general effects of climate change on child health without addressing the differential effect on social groups, different countries or geographical locations Reviews of literature on health outcomes among children and adults which do not report child health outcomes separately Reviews of literature on the effects of climate change on disadvantaged populations without reference to health effects on children aged 0–18 years |
Authors | Journal | Research Question/Objective | Age of Study Population(s) | Context | Types of Climate Change | Child Health Outcomes | Dimension of Child Health Inequity | Summary of Review Findings Reinequalities and Type of Evidence (Quantitative and/ or Descriptive) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benevolenza MA and DeRigne 2018 [21] | J Human Behavior Soc Env | Evaluate and summarize the research in peer-reviewed literature that pertains to climate change and natural disasters acting as destabilizing forces hampering the mental and physical health of vulnerable populations | 0–18 years | US | Weather events; hurricanes; increase in annual numbers and intensity | Emotional and cognitive health, depression and anxiety | Within country— low v. high-income households | Low-income households at increased risk of maternal stress and child anxiety due to natural disasters compared with high-income households. Descriptive evidence only. |
Phalkey RK, et al. 2015 [22] | PNAS | Assess the scientific evidence base for the impact of climate change on childhood undernutrition (particularly stunting) in subsistence farmers in low- and middle-income countries. | 0–5 years | LMICs | Weather events, e.g., rainfall, extreme weather events (floods/droughts), seasonality, and temperature | Childhood undernutrition (stunting) | Within country— Low household income, low education Geographic—semi-arid conditions | Current evidence is limited but suggests a significant link between weather variables and stunting at household level in LMICs. Agricultural, socioeconomic, and demographic factors at the household and individual level play a substantial role in mediating the nutritional impacts of climate changes. Descriptive evidence only |
Chersich et al. 2020 [23] | BMJ | Assess whether exposure to high temperatures in pregnancy is associated with increased risk for preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirth. | Perinatal | Global * | Increased temperatures, heat waves | Preterm birth, birth weight, and stillbirths | Within country: women in low SES, low educated groups. Between country—LMICs v. HICs | Associations between temp and outcomes were largest among women in lower SES groups, e.g., women in Korean study with both low education levels and low socioeconomic status had a 1.1-fold increased hazard ratio of preterm birth for each quartile increase in temperature, considerably higher than that in other women in the study. Some evidence suggested that pregnant women in low and middle income countries were vulnerable to heat exposure throughout pregnancy, whereas vulnerability among women in high income countries was largely confined to the last weeks of pregnancy. Descriptive and quantitative evidence. |
Lieber et al. 2020 [24] | Global Public Health | Summarize evidence on relationship between climate change and malnutrition | 0–18 years | Global * | Droughts, flooding and climate variability (CC proxies) | Malnutrition (wasting, stunting, or underweight) | Within country—low v. high maternal education; low v. high SES | Pooled estimates for wasting (OR 1.46 (95%CI 1.05,2.04)) and underweight (OR 1.46 (95%CI1.01,2.11) prevalence associated with drought Factors moderating impact of drought/flooding on malnutrition: 4 included studies found that higher levels of maternal education were protective against the development of malnutrition in children. and 5 studies found poorest families were most vulnerable to malnutrition. Descriptive and quantitative evidence |
Authors | Journal | Research Question/Objective | Age of Study Population(s) | Context | Types of Climate Change | Child Health Outcomes | Dimension of Child Health Inequity | Summary of Review Findings Reinequalities and Type of Evidence (Quantitative and/ or Descriptive) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Costello A, et al. 2009 [13] | The Lancet | Define climate change, define changes to patterns of illnesses that are affected by climate change. | 0–18 years | Global * | Rising temperatures | Malnutrition, diarrhoea, infectious diseases, respiratory diseases, vector-borne diseases, deaths. | Within country—Poor children in urban areas, those in traditional societies and children of subsistence farmers Between country— LMICs v. HICs Geographic—coastal populations | Climate change will have its greatest effect on those who have the least access to the world’s resources and who have contributed least to its cause. Without mitigation and adaptation, it will increase health inequity especially through negative effects on the social determinants of health in the poorest communities. Descriptive and quantitative evidence |
Ahdoot S, and Pacheco. 2015 [25] | Pediatrics | To educate pediatricians on the current knowledge of climate change and its effects on children’s health. | 0–18 years | Global * | Rising temperatures | Heat-related mortality and morbidity including preterm birth; asthma and respiratory disease; infectious diseases; death and injury due to extreme weather events; malnutrition; diarrhoea | Within country—poorest households Between country— LMICs v, HICs | Children in the world’s poorest countries, where the disease burden is already disproportionately high, are most affected by climate change. Studies have projected a 7% to 20% increase in the number of malnourished children globally because of climate change primarily in LMICs. Descriptive and quantitative evidence |
Assembly of First Nations (AFN) 2008 [26] | AFN Reports | Describe the vulnerability of FN children to environmental hazards including climate change | 0–18 years | Canada | Rising temperatures | Infant mortality, respiratory infections, skin conditions, diarrhoea, mental health problems | Within country—First Nation children | Poverty, poor housing, over-crowding among first nation families Descriptive evidence |
Authors | Journal | Research Question/Objective | Age of Study Population(S) | Context | Types of Climate Change | Child Health Outcomes | Dimension of Child Health Inequity | Summary of Review Findings Reinequalities and Type of Evidence (Quantitative and/or Descriptive) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Clemens et al. 2020 [27] | European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | Summarize evidence on direct and indirect pathways of climate change on child and adolescent mental health | 0–18 years | Global * | Warming and natural disasters | Mental health, post-traumatic stress disorder | Within country—Adversity. Low income and disadvantaged families Between countries—low HDI V. high HDI Geographic—low lying areas | Mental health consequences of climate change will particularly affect children and adolescents who are already disadvantaged—those with low or no social support by families and peers, those from families with low socio-economic status. Socioeconomic factors such as, the human development index of the country are relevant pointing towards more severe effects in poverty on internal or external disorder or distress Descriptive evidence |
Ebi and Paulson, 2007. [28] | Pediatr Clin N Am | Review the key issues related to climate change, then reviews climate-sensitive health determinants and outcomes in the context of children’s health, considers intergenerational equity issues | 0–18 years | Global * | Rising temperatures; changes in global precipitation patterns, rising sea levels, and increases in the frequency and intensity of some extreme weather events | Mortality from heat events, infectious disease (e.g., Lyme disease), malnutrition, respiratory illnesses | Within country—Wealth and income distribution as key determinants of health impact of climate change Between country—LMICs v. HICs | Particular vulnerability of children (vs adults) to the adverse effects of climate change interact with poverty, race and class. Also introduces concept of ‘intergenerational inequity’, where children are considered to be a particularly disadvantaged population, not only on account of their present age-related vulnerability, but also because the higher likelihood of experiencing severe effects of climate change in the future. Descriptive evidence |
Goldhagen JL, et al. 2019 [29] | The Lancet Child and Adolesc | Present a global agenda for child health and wellbeing as a blueprint for the practice of pediatrics and child health in the domains of clinical care, systems development, and policy formulation. | 0–18 years | Global * | Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, | Malaria, dengue, lepto-spirosis, and leishmaniosis; children’s stress, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder; Diarrhea, stunting, vector-borne disease | Between and within country, climate change as one of determinants of child health, basics human needs, and children’s rights | A disproportionate effect of climate change on the rights of specific groups of vulnerable children, including displaced children, children living in poverty, indigenous children, and children with developmental disabilities. Descriptive evidence |
Kistin et al. 2010 [30] | Arch Dis Child | To evaluate how the rise in temperature, precipitation, droughts, floods, glacier melt and sea levels resulting from human-induced climate change is affecting the quantity, quality and flow of water resources worldwide and impacting child health through dangerous effects on water supply and sanitation, food production and human migration. | 0–18 years | Global * | Floods, storms, drought and extreme weather events | Water related illnesses - malnutrition, diarrhea, | Between country— LMICs vs. HICs | Climate change estimate to cause approximately 5.5 million of disability adjusted life years in 2000, and predictions of an increase of 16% of malnutrition, 5% diarrhea and 17% of malaria by 2030. The risk will potentially be highest on the poorest and more vulnerable populations particularly among children Descriptive evidence |
Levy and Patz, 2015. [31] | Ann Global Health. | Present overview of climate change manifestation and populations who will be most affected | 0–18 years; general population | Global * | Heat waves, heavy precipitation events, intensity and duration of droughts, intense tropical cyclone, sea level | Heat-related disorders, vector-borne diseases, foodborne and waterborne diseases, respiratory and allergic disorders, malnutrition, collective violence, and mental health problems. | Within country—poor and marginalized in poor countries. Minority status Between country— HICs vs. LMICs Geographic—low altitude | Climate change disproportionately affects poor countries and poor people within these countries. Socioeconomic, demographic, health-related, geographic, and other risk factors make subgroups within populations more vulnerable to the adverse health effects of climate change. Adverse health effects caused by climate change likely to be heavily concentrated in low-income populations at low latitudes Descriptive evidence |
McMichael 2014 [32] | Children | Provide overview of climate change manifestation and populations that will be most affected | 0–18 years | Global * | Heat waves, heavy precipitation events, intensity and duration of droughts, intense tropical cyclone, sea level | Under-nutrition and stunting; diarrheal, parasitic, vector-borne and other infectious diseases; and allergic respiratory disorders [3,4]. Social and emotional development | Between country— LMICs v. HICs - initially LMICs most affected but increasingly effects will be felt across the world | Children in lower-income countries, especially in tropical areas, will suffer the most from climate change due to further amplification of health risks by persistent poverty, crowded living, lack of access to clean water, poor sanitation and inadequate healthcare systems Includes a summary of direct risks, less direct (secondary risks) and tertiary (diffuse) health consequences Descriptive evidence |
Parkes M, et al. 2010 [33] | Int Public Health J. | Review key social determinants of health for Indigenous children and ultimately argue for a broader SDoH framework for Indigenous children. | 0–18 years | Canada | Warming, loss of permafrost, degradation of habitats and species | Ecological and socio-cultural determinants of health of First Nations children. Specific outcomes not stated | Within country— Indigenous status with associated poverty, disadvantage, Geographic—vulnerability in their homelands | Indigenous children have poor health outcomes and weaker material infrastructure than non-Indigenous children; argue also that full wellbeing of Indigenous children is more broadly defined Descriptive evidence |
Patz JA, et al. 2007 [34] | Eco Health | Provide overview of climate change manifestation and populations who will be most affected | 0–18 years; general population; focus on under 5 child population | Global * | Undefined; rising temperatures | Malaria, malnutrition diarrhea | Between countries— LMICs vs. HICs | Existing health disparities for many people already struggling with poverty, malnutrition, and the effects of natural disasters will be exacerbated by climate change. Countries producing fewer emissions at higher risk from climate change. Example of malaria-endemic countries Descriptive evidence |
Philipsborn RP and Chan, 2018. [35] | Pediatrics | Overview of climate change manifestation and populations who will be most affected | 0–18 years | Global * | Warming, rising sea levels, increasing natural disasters, air pollution, desertification | Heat stress, malnutrition, diarrhea, vector-borne diseases, allergies | Within country— Poor vs. non-poor. Between country— LMICs vs. HICs | Children in resource-limited settings - households, countries - most affected by respiratory-related illness. These children also most vulnerable to droughts and flooding—magnifying existing disparities in social determinants of health Descriptive evidence |
Rylander C, et al. 2013 [36] | Global Health | Review how climate change will increase the risk of infant and maternal mortality, birth complications, and poorer reproductive health, especially in tropical, developing countries. | Pregnant women, the developing fetus, and young children | LMICs | Global warming and extreme weather events | Infant mortality, preterm birth, low birth weight, malnutrition and stunting, diarrhea, malaria, | Between country—LMICs v. HICs; tropical most vulnerable | Climate change will have a substantial impact on the health and survival of the next generation among already challenged populations through impact of malnutrition on maternal health and pregnancy outcomes Descriptive evidence |
Sheffield and Landrigan, [37] | Env Health Perspect | Review the projected impacts of climate change on children’s health, the pathways involved in these effects, and prevention strategies. | Fetus and 0–18 years | Global * | Warming, extreme weather events, rising sea levels, air pollution | Vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue; increased diarrheal and respiratory disease; increased morbidity and mortality from extreme weather; changed exposures to toxic chemicals; worsened poverty; food and physical insecurity; and threats to human habitation. Heat-related health effects for which research is emerging include diminished school performance, increased rates of pregnancy complications, and renal effects. | Within country—Poor, disadvantaged children Between countries— LMICs V. HICs | The health impacts of global climate change are expected to be widespread, geographically variable, and profoundly influenced by preexisting social and economic disparities. Stark variation in these outcomes is evident by geographic region and socioeconomic status, and these impacts will exacerbate health disparities Increased morbidity and mortality, vector-borne diseases, exposure to toxic chemical, threats to human habitation. Heat-related health effects and its relationship with school performance, increased rates of pregnancy complications, and renal effects. Descriptive evidence |
Anderko et al. 2020 [38] | Pediatric research | Provide an overview of research exploring the impact of climate change on children’s health impacts, as well as provide recommendations for pediatric research moving forward. | Fetal and perinatal periods and 0–18 years | Global * | Warming, extreme weather events, rising sea levels, air pollution (CO2) | Asthma, allergies, vector-borne diseases, malnutrition, low birth weight, post-traumatic stress | Between countries— LMICs vs. HICs | Children in low-income countries that already experience a higher burden of disease and limited capability to adapt are affected even more by climate change. They are at high risk of vector-borne disease, malnutrition, worse perinatal outcomes, mental health, decreased school attendance Descriptive evidence |
Wooldridge G and Murthy S. 2020 [39] | Frontiers in Pediatrics | Explore impact of climate change on pediatric critical care (PCC) and focusing on the health care sector’s impact on CC | 0–18 years | Global * | Warming, extreme weather events | Critical illness related to heat stress, vector-borne disease, diarrhea, malnutrition, pneumonia | Between countries— LMICs vs. HICs | Climate change will increase burden of pediatric critical illness and disruption to health care systems and LMICs least able to cope. Descriptive evidence |
Olson and Metz 2020 [40] | Faculty Reviews | Explore relationship between prenatal maternal stress (PNMS) and paternal stress, allostatic load, and the degradation of the environment on individuals. | Fetal, perinatal and 0–18 years | Global * | Warming, air and land pollution, extreme weather events, rising sea levels, ocean acidification | Preterm birth, low birth weight, mental health problems | Within country—Poor and indigenous newborns and children. Between countries— LMICs vs. HICs | Climate crisis as a health threat multiplier - amplifies the health inequities of the most at-risk populations and individuals. It accelerates the increase in allostatic load of those at risk leading to increased pre-term-birth, and developmental, and mental health problems Descriptive evidence |
Davies GI, et al. 2014 [41] | Int J Env Res Public Health | Characterize the impact of weather events in Cambodia | 0–18 years; general population | Cambodia | Weather events, especially floods, droughts and typhoons; Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency and intensity of such events. | Water-borne diseases, primarily diarrheal disease (i.e., viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, dysentery, cholera and other manifestations of gastrointestinal infections) | Within country— Poverty, lower level of education Geographic— Populations in low-lying areas | Pre-existing vulnerabilities and low adaptive capacity of the population relate to widespread poverty, poor health and malnutrition; settlements in flood-prone areas; reliance on agriculture for food security and income; low education levels; inadequate warning systems; and resource, governance and public health limitations Descriptive and quantitative evidence |
Bennett and Friel 2014 [42] | Children | To address the amplification of existing child health inequities by climate change | 0–18 years | Global * | Global heating, extreme weather events, changing precipitation patterns | Heat stress, vector-borne diseases and undernutrition | Within country—poorest and socially-disadvantaged Between country—LMICs v. HICs | The burden of climate change-related ill-health will fall heavily on the world’s poorest and socially-disadvantaged children, who already have poor survival rates and low life expectancies due to issues including poverty, endemic disease, undernutrition, inadequate living conditions and socio-economic disadvantage. Descriptive evidence |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Arpin, E.; Gauffin, K.; Kerr, M.; Hjern, A.; Mashford-Pringle, A.; Barros, A.; Rajmil, L.; Choonara, I.; Spencer, N. Climate Change and Child Health Inequality: A Review of Reviews. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10896. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010896
Arpin E, Gauffin K, Kerr M, Hjern A, Mashford-Pringle A, Barros A, Rajmil L, Choonara I, Spencer N. Climate Change and Child Health Inequality: A Review of Reviews. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(20):10896. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010896
Chicago/Turabian StyleArpin, Emmanuelle, Karl Gauffin, Meghan Kerr, Anders Hjern, Angela Mashford-Pringle, Aluisio Barros, Luis Rajmil, Imti Choonara, and Nicholas Spencer. 2021. "Climate Change and Child Health Inequality: A Review of Reviews" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 20: 10896. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010896
APA StyleArpin, E., Gauffin, K., Kerr, M., Hjern, A., Mashford-Pringle, A., Barros, A., Rajmil, L., Choonara, I., & Spencer, N. (2021). Climate Change and Child Health Inequality: A Review of Reviews. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(20), 10896. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010896