The Role of Social Context in Physiological and Psychological Restoration in a Forest: Case Study of a Guided Forest Therapy Program in Taiwan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Experimental Design
2.3. Participants
2.4. Physiological Measures
2.5. Psychological Measures
2.6. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Information
3.2. Influence of Programs on Physiological Responses
3.3. Influence of Programs on Psychological Response
4. Discussion
4.1. Influences of the Three Forest Therapy Programs on Physiological Responses
4.2. Influences of the Three Forest Therapy Programs on Psychological Responses
4.3. Comparisons of Changes in Physiological Responses and Mood States among the Three Programs
4.4. Limitations of the Study and Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Programs | References |
---|---|
Alone (participants walking and/or watching in a forest individually) | Beil and Hanes [32]; Komori et al. [33]; Lee et al. [16]; Lee et al. [18]; Mao et al. [5]; Park et al. [20]; Park et al. [27]; Park et al. [10]; Park et al. [22]; Song et al. [8]; Takayama et al. [21]. |
Guided (participants interacting with a guide) | Chen, Yu and Lee [34]; Ochiai et al. [7]; Ochiai et al. [11]; Song et al. [24]; Yu et al. [31]. |
Locations | Activities | Senses | Time (min) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Warm-up and departing the aromatherapy room for Location 2 | 5 | |
2 | Starting point: explaining the sensory activities in the forest therapy program (visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile) | 5 | |
3 | Strolling in a bamboo forest | Visual and tactile | 10 |
4 | Admiring forests, listening to a river, and exploring sounds from insects and birds | Visual and auditory | 10 |
5 | Cooling down with stream water; breathing and stretching exercises | Tactile and olfactory | 15 |
Break | 10 | ||
6 | Walking on a Japanese cedar path and experiencing the forest’s density and serenity | Visual and auditory | 10 |
7 | Embracing trees and enjoying the forest air | Tactile and olfactory | 10 |
8 | Listening to nature in the quiet forest and sharing sounds with other participants | Auditory | 10 |
9 | Wrap-up | 5 |
Demographics | N (%) | |
---|---|---|
Gender | Female | 40 (40.4) |
Male | 59 (59.6) | |
Age | 21–30 | 38 (38.4) |
31–50 | 14 (14.1) | |
51–65 | 41 (41.4) | |
≥66 | 6 (6.1) | |
Education | Graduate school | 17 (17.2) |
College | 58 (58.6) | |
High school | 17 (17.2) | |
Middle school and below | 7 (7.1) | |
Living area | Urban | 45 (45.5) |
Suburban | 42 (42.4) | |
Rural | 9 (9.1) | |
Others | 3 (3.0) | |
Last time to visit nature | Within 1 week | 38 (38.4) |
Between 1 week and half month | 30 (13.5) | |
Between half month to 1 month | 8 (8.1) | |
Over 1 month | 23 (23.3) |
Indicators | N | Walk Alone Group (Control, C) | N | Self-Guided Group/Map (M) | N | Guided Group (G) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | Post | Pre | Post | Pre | Post | |||||
Physiological | HR (bpm) | 25 a | 71.7 ± 10.3 | 73.0 ± 11.5 | 33 b | 70.5 ± 8.1 | 74.1 ± 11.4 | 28 | 75.1 ± 10.8 | 76.8 ± 13.4 |
SBP (mmHg) | 25 a | 123.0 ± 14.7 | 118.2 ± 13.6 | 33 b | 119.4 ± 18.6 | 115.8 ±16.4 | 28 | 116.3 ± 14.1 | 110.1 ± 12.3 | |
DBP (mmHg) | 25 a | 75.0 ± 7.9 | 72.7 ± 6.9 | 33 b | 74.5 ± 7.1 | 72.5 ± 7.5 | 28 | 71.7 ± 7.5 | 71.0 ± 7.8 | |
RFa (bpm2) | 25 a | 1.4 ± 0.8 | 1.7 ± 0.8 | 33 b | 1.6 ± 1.0 | 1.4 ± 0.9 | 28 | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.8 | |
LFa (bpm2) | 25 a | 1.2 ± 0.7 | 1.4 ±0.6 | 33 b | 1.3 ±0.7 | 1.2 ± 0.7 | 28 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.2 ± 0.4 | |
LFa/RFa | 25 a | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 33 b | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 28 | 1.1 ± 0.5 | 1.0 ± 0.4 | |
Psychological | T–A | 37 | 4.2 ± 5.2 | 1.4 ± 2.7 | 34 | 6.5 ± 5.9 | 3.2 ± 3.5 | 28 | 6.9 ± 6.1 | 1.9 ± 2.9 |
D–D | 37 | 4.3 ± 6.9 | 1.3 ± 3.2 | 34 | 6.2 ± 6.4 | 2.1 ± 3.4 | 28 | 6.0 ± 6.4 | 1.9 ± 3.2 | |
A–H | 37 | 3.6 ± 6.1 | 1.7 ± 2.8 | 34 | 4.7 ± 5.4 | 2.4 ± 2.5 | 28 | 4.3 ± 5.0 | 2.0 ± 1.9 | |
C–B | 37 | 4.4 ± 4.0 | 1.8 ± 2.3 | 34 | 6.4 ± 4.5 | 2.6 ± 2.7 | 28 | 6.8 ± 4.6 | 2.3 ± 2.6 | |
F–I | 37 | 5.9 ± 5.0 | 4.1 ± 4.3 | 34 | 6.6 ± 5.4 | 4.4 ± 3.0 | 28 | 7.5 ± 5.2 | 5.1 ± 3.9 | |
V–A | 37 | 15.4 ± 4.8 | 15.6 ± 4.8 | 34 | 13.3 ± 5.0 | 15.1 ± 4.6 | 28 | 12.8 ± 4.5 | 15.1 ± 4.2 |
Group C | Pre | Post | t | p | Change (%) |
HR (bpm) | 71.7 ± 10.3 | 73.0 ± 11.5 | 0.872 | 0.392 | 1.73 |
SBP (mmHg) | 122.8 ± 14.7 | 118.2 ± 13.6 | −2.741 | 0.011 * | −3.78 |
DBP (mmHg) | 75.0 ± 7.9 | 72.7 ± 6.9 | −1.945 | 0.064 | −3.09 |
RFa (bpm2) | 1.4 ± 0.8 | 1.7 ± 0.8 | 2.021 | 0.055 | 21.13 |
LFa (bpm2) | 1.2 ± 0.7 | 1.4 ±0.6 | 2.184 | 0.039 * | 15.45 |
LFa/RFa | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 0.9 ± 0.4 | −0.793 | 0.436 | −6.93 |
Group M | Pre | Post | |||
HR (bpm) | 70.5 ± 8.1 | 74.1 ± 11.4 | 3.413 | 0.002 ** | 5.12 |
SBP (mmHg) | 119.4 ± 18.6 | 115.8 ±16.4 | −2.832 | 0.008 ** | −3.04 |
DBP (mmHg) | 74.5 ± 7.1 | 72.5 ± 7.5 | −2.502 | 0.018* | −2.70 |
RFa (bpm2) | 1.6 ± 1.0 | 1.4 ± 0.9 | −1.332 | 0.192 | −10.76 |
LFa (bpm2) | 1.3 ±0.7 | 1.2 ± 0.7 | −0.933 | 0.358 | –6.87 |
LFa/RFa | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 0.373 | 0.711 | 4.12 |
Group G | Pre | Post | |||
HR (bpm) | 75.1 ± 10.8 | 76.8 ± 13.4 | 1.334 | 0.193 | 2.24 |
SBP (mmHg) | 116.3 ± 14.1 | 110.1 ± 12.3 | −4.360 | 0.000 *** | −5.31 |
DBP (mmHg) | 71.7 ± 7.5 | 71.0 ± 7.8 | −0.0733 | 0.470 | −0.93 |
RFa (bpm2) | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 1.4 ± 0.8 | −0.0556 | 0.583 | −5.41 |
LFa (bpm2) | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.2 ± 0.4 | −1.850 | 0.075 | −11.76 |
LFa/RFa | 1.1 ± 0.5 | 1.0 ± 0.4 | −1.039 | 0.308 | −6.60 |
Physiological Changes | Group | Mean ± SD | Change (%) | F | p | ηp2 | Post-hoc |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
△HR (bpm) | C | 1.24 ± 7.11 | 1.73 | 1.527 | 0.223 | 0.035 | |
M | 4.12 ± 6.93 | 5.12 | |||||
G | 1.67 ± 6.66 | 2.24 | |||||
△SBP (mmHg) | C | −4.64 ± 8.47 | −3.78 | 0.594 | 0.555 | 0.014 | |
M | −3.974 ± 8.05 | −3.04 | |||||
G | −61.81 ± 7.50 | −5.31 | |||||
△DBP (mmHg) | C | −2.321 ± 5.96 | −3.09 | 0.852 | 0.430 | 0.020 | |
M | −2.24 ± 5.15 | −2.70 | |||||
G | −0.68 ± 4.90 | −0.93 | |||||
△RFa (bpm2) | C | 0.29 ± 0.73 | 21.13 | 3.102 | 0.050 | 0.070 | |
M | −0.16 ± 0.68 | −10.76 | |||||
G | −0.08 ± 0.73 | −5.41 | |||||
△LFa (bpm2) | C | 0.19 ± 0.44 | 15.45 | 3.552 | 0.033 * | 0.079 | C > G |
M | −0.10 ± 0.60 | −6.87 | |||||
G | −0.16 ± 0.46 | −11.76 | |||||
△LFa/RFa | C | −0.07 ± 0.45 | −6.93 | 0.527 | 0.592 | 0.013 | |
M | 0.04 ± 0.57 | 4.12 | |||||
G | 0.07 ± 0.47 | −6.60 |
Group C | Pre | Post | t | p | Change (%) |
T–A | 4.2 ± 5.2 | 1.38 ± 2.66 | −3.796 | 0.001 ** | −66.83 |
D–D | 4.3 ± 6.9 | 1.27 ± 3.21 | −3.277 | 0.002 ** | −70.26 |
A–H | 3.6 ± 6.1 | 1.68 ± 2.75 | −2.054 | 0.047 * | −52.94 |
C–B | 4.4 ± 4.0 | 1.78 ± 2.25 | −4.401 | 0.000 *** | −59.64 |
F–I | 5.9 ± 5.0 | 4.14 ± 4.32 | −2.286 | 0.028 * | −29.71 |
V–A | 15.4 ± 4.8 | 15.62 ± 4.76 | 0.310 | 0.758 | 1.76 |
Group M | Pre | Post | |||
T–A | 6.5 ± 5.9 | 3.15 ± 3.46 | −4.307 | 0.000 *** | −51.76 |
D–D | 6.2 ± 6.4 | 2.06 ± 3.35 | −5.409 | 0.000 *** | −66.99 |
A–H | 4.7 ± 5.4 | 2.44 ± 2.45 | −3.088 | 0.004 ** | −45.41 |
C–B | 6.4 ± 4.5 | 2.62 ± 2.70 | −6.760 | 0.000 *** | −59.32 |
F–I | 6.6 ± 5.4 | 4.44 ± 3.03 | −2.421 | 0.021 * | −32.63 |
V–A | 13.3 ± 5.0 | 15.09 ± 4.59 | 2.180 | 0.036 * | 13.80 |
Group G | Pre | Post | |||
T–A | 6.9 ± 6.1 | 1.9 ± 2.9 | −5.549 | 0.000 *** | −71.99 |
D–D | 6.0 ± 6.4 | 1.9 ± 3.2 | −5.079 | 0.000 *** | −68.29 |
A–H | 4.3 ± 5.0 | 2.0 ± 1.9 | −2.982 | 0.006 ** | −54.31 |
C–B | 6.8 ± 4.6 | 2.3 ± 2.6 | −6.576 | 0.000 *** | −65.63 |
F–I | 7.5 ± 5.2 | 5.1 ± 3.9 | −2.698 | 0.012 * | −31.87 |
V–A | 12.8 ± 4.5 | 15.1 ± 4.2 | 2.444 | 0.021 * | 18.10 |
Physiological Changes | Group | Mean ± SD | Change (%) | F | p | ηp2 | Post Hoc |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ΔT–A | C | −2.78 ± 4.46 | −66.83 | 1.869 | 0.160 | 0.037 | |
M | −3.38 ± 4.58 | −51.76 | |||||
G | −4.96 ± 4.73 | −71.99 | |||||
ΔD–D | C | −3.00 ± 5.57 | −70.26 | 0.628 | 0.536 | 0.013 | |
M | −4.18 ± 4.50 | −66.99 | |||||
G | −4.07 ± 4.24 | −68.29 | |||||
ΔA–H | C | −2.321 ± 5.96 | −52.94 | 0.087 | 0.917 | 0.002 | |
M | −2.24 ± 5.15 | −45.41 | |||||
G | −0.68 ± 4.90 | −54.31 | |||||
ΔC–B | C | −2.62 ± 3.62 | −59.64 | 2.290 | 0.107 | 0.046 | |
M | −3.82 ± 3.30 | −59.32 | |||||
G | −4.43 ± 3.56 | −65.63 | |||||
ΔF–I | C | −1.76 ± 4.67 | −29.71 | 0.143 | 0.867 | 0.003 | |
M | −2.15 ± 5.17 | −32.63 | |||||
G | −2.39 ± 4.69 | −31.87 | |||||
ΔV–A | C | 0.27 ± 5.31 | 1.76 | 1.491 | 0.230 | 0.030 | |
M | 1.82 ± 4.88 | 13.80 | |||||
G | 2.32 ± 5.03 | 18.10 |
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Yu, C.-P.; Chen, H.-T.; Chao, P.-H.; Yin, J.; Tsai, M.-J. The Role of Social Context in Physiological and Psychological Restoration in a Forest: Case Study of a Guided Forest Therapy Program in Taiwan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10076. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910076
Yu C-P, Chen H-T, Chao P-H, Yin J, Tsai M-J. The Role of Social Context in Physiological and Psychological Restoration in a Forest: Case Study of a Guided Forest Therapy Program in Taiwan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(19):10076. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910076
Chicago/Turabian StyleYu, Chia-Pin, Heng-Ting Chen, Pei-Hua Chao, Jie Yin, and Ming-Jer Tsai. 2021. "The Role of Social Context in Physiological and Psychological Restoration in a Forest: Case Study of a Guided Forest Therapy Program in Taiwan" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 19: 10076. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910076