Air Pollutant Particles, PM2.5, Exposure and Glaucoma in Patients with Diabetes: A National Population-Based Nested Case–Control Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Source
2.2. Study Population
2.3. Comorbidities
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Characteristics
3.2. PM2.5 Exposure Level and Glaucoma Risk
3.3. Independent Risk Factors
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Control | Glaucoma | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 788) | (n = 197) | ||||
Gender | |||||
Female | 384 | (48.73%) | 96 | (48.73%) | 1.0000 |
Male | 404 | (51.27%) | 101 | (51.27%) | |
Age | |||||
Mean ± SD | 57.35 ± 10.42 | 57.29 ± 10.34 | 0.9628 | ||
Low income | |||||
Yes | 366 | (46.45%) | 103 | (52.28%) | 0.1423 |
No | 422 | (53.55%) | 94 | (47.72%) | |
Urbanization level | |||||
Highly urbanized | 210 | (26.65%) | 68 | (34.52%) | 0.0066 |
Moderate urbanization | 228 | (28.93%) | 65 | (32.99%) | |
Emerging town | 169 | (21.45%) | 27 | (13.71%) | |
General town | 106 | (13.45%) | 22 | (11.17%) | |
Aged Township | 10 | (1.27%) | 5 | (2.54%) | |
Agricultural town | 40 | (5.08%) | 2 | (1.02%) | |
Remote township | 25 | (3.17%) | 8 | (4.06%) | |
Comorbidities | |||||
Hypertension | 500 | (63.45%) | 136 | (69.04%) | 0.1428 |
Ischemic heart disease | 83 | (10.53%) | 20 | (10.15%) | 0.5154 |
Hyperlipidemia | 456 | (57.87%) | 124 | (62.94%) | 0.1953 |
Congestive heart failure | 38 | (4.82%) | 4 | (2.03%) | 0.0828 |
Cardiac dysrhythmias | 63 | (7.99%) | 20 | (10.15%) | 0.3296 |
Peripheral vascular disease | 19 | (2.41%) | 5 | (2.54%) | 0.9177 |
Ischemic stroke | 13 | (1.65%) | 2 | (1.02%) | 0.8759 |
Other neurologic disorders | 11 | (1.4%) | 5 | (2.54%) | 0.2567 |
Headaches | 266 | (33.76%) | 72 | (36.55%) | 0.4604 |
Migraines | 19 | (2.41%) | 10 | (5.08%) | 0.0478 |
Epilepsy and recurrent | 11 | (1.4%) | 1 | (0.51%) | 0.3094 |
Dementia | 16 | (2.03%) | 2 | (1.02%) | 0.3413 |
Rheumatoid arthritis | 21 | (2.66%) | 4 | (2.03%) | 0.6125 |
Asthma | 166 | (21.07%) | 31 | (15.74%) | 0.0944 |
Chronic kidney disease | 28 | (3.55%) | 7 | (3.55%) | 1.0000 |
Fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | 16 | (2.03%) | 3 | (1.52%) | 0.6431 |
Hepatitis B | 43 | (5.46%) | 7 | (3.55%) | 0.2763 |
Tuberculosis | 21 | (2.66%) | 2 | (1.02%) | 0.1702 |
Anemia | 57 | (7.23%) | 21 | (10.66%) | 0.1112 |
Peptic ulcer disease | 256 | (32.49%) | 61 | (30.96%) | 0.6824 |
Depression | 12 | (1.52%) | 4 | (2.03%) | 0.6142 |
Psychosis | 16 | (2.03%) | 5 | (2.54%) | 0.6591 |
Malignant disease | 102 | (12.94%) | 26 | (13.20%) | 0.9245 |
Particulate matter (PM) 2.5 | |||||
Q1 level (0–561.56 μg/m3) | 208 | (26.40%) | 39 | (19.80%) | 0.0686 |
Q2 level (561.57–852.26 μg/m3) | 198 | (25.13%) | 46 | (23.35%) | |
Q3 level ( 852.27–1284.69 μg/m3) | 198 | (25.13%) | 50 | (25.38%) | |
Q4 level (1284.70–2727.44 μg/m3) | 184 | (23.35%) | 62 | (31.47%) |
Glaucoma | ||
---|---|---|
Adjusted OR (95%CI) | p | |
Particulate matter (PM)2.5 level (reference: Q1 level) | ||
Q2 level | 1.232 (0.757–2.004) | 0.4015 |
Q3 level | 1.451 (0.895–2.352) | 0.1313 |
Q4 level | 1.731 (1.084–2.764) | 0.0215 |
Gender (reference: female) | ||
Male | 0.835 (0.590–1.182) | 0.3097 |
Age | 0.999 (0.981–1.016) | 0.8765 |
Low-income (reference: No) | ||
Yes | 1.294 (0.927–1.806) | 0.1299 |
Urbanization level (reference: moderate urbanization) | ||
Highly urbanized | 1.109 (0.742–1.659) | 0.6131 |
Emerging town | 0.559 (0.337–0.929) | 0.0247 |
General town | 0.791 (0.453–1.381) | 0.4104 |
Aged Township | 1.795 (0.546–5.900) | 0.3353 |
Agricultural town | 0.197 (0.046–0.853) | 0.0297 |
Remote township | 1.138 (0.469–2.762) | 0.7755 |
Comorbidities (reference: without) | ||
Hypertension | 1.296 (0.898–1.872) | 0.1665 |
Ischemic heart disease | 0.930 (0.534–1.619) | 0.7966 |
Hyperlipidemia | 1.061 (0.750–1.500) | 0.7372 |
Congestive heart failure | 0.415 (0.137–1.258) | 0.1200 |
Cardiac dysrhythmias | 1.426 (0.803–2.531) | 0.2255 |
Peripheral vascular disease | 1.130 (0.387–3.306) | 0.8228 |
Ischemic stroke | 0.586 (0.120–2.855) | 0.5086 |
Other neurologic disorders | 1.930 (0.614–6.068) | 0.2605 |
Headaches | 1.232 (0.847–1.791) | 0.2760 |
Migraines | 2.672 (1.127–6.335) | 0.0257 |
Epilepsy and recurrent | 0.499 (0.058–4.271) | 0.5258 |
Dementia | 0.530 (0.112–2.513) | 0.4238 |
Rheumatoid arthritis | 0.770 (0.248–2.392) | 0.6518 |
Asthma | 0.665 (0.418–1.056) | 0.0840 |
Chronic kidney disease | 0.993 (0.397–2.487) | 0.9884 |
Fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | 0.719 (0.187–2.770) | 0.6321 |
Hepatitis B | 0.716 (0.308–1.664) | 0.4378 |
Tuberculosis | 0.407 (0.090–1.839) | 0.2425 |
Anemia | 1.641 (0.933–2.887) | 0.0855 |
Peptic ulcer disease | 0.879 (0.605–1.279) | 0.5015 |
Depression | 2.403 (0.179–32.333) | 0.5086 |
Psychosis | 0.629 (0.062–6.395) | 0.6955 |
Malignant disease | 0.971 (0.597–1.580) | 0.9071 |
Particulate Matter (PM)2.5 Level (Reference: Q1 Level) | p | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q2 level | Q3 level | Q4 level | |||
Urbanization level | |||||
Emerging town groups | |||||
Yes | (n = 196) | 1.289 (0.320–5.190) | 0.729 (0.168–3.166) | 0.439 (0.080–2.423) | 0.2572 |
No | (n = 789) | 1.198 (0.695–2.066) | 1.491 (0.871–2.550) | 2.046 (1.229–3.406) | 0.0018 |
Agricultural town groups | |||||
Yes | (n = 42) | - | - | - | 0.9729 |
No | (n = 943) | 1.254 (0.768–2.049) | 1.440 (0.883–2.349) | 1.749 (1.091–2.803) | 0.0117 |
Comorbidities | |||||
Migraines groups | |||||
Yes | (n = 29) | - | - | - | 0.6125 |
No | (n = 956) | 1.195 (0.721–1.979) | 1.465 (0.893–2.403) | 1.728 (1.074–2.782) | 0.0065 |
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Chiang, Y.-W.; Wu, S.-W.; Luo, C.-W.; Chen, S.-P.; Chen, C.-J.; Chen, W.-Y.; Chang, C.-C.; Chen, C.-M.; Kuan, Y.-H. Air Pollutant Particles, PM2.5, Exposure and Glaucoma in Patients with Diabetes: A National Population-Based Nested Case–Control Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9939. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189939
Chiang Y-W, Wu S-W, Luo C-W, Chen S-P, Chen C-J, Chen W-Y, Chang C-C, Chen C-M, Kuan Y-H. Air Pollutant Particles, PM2.5, Exposure and Glaucoma in Patients with Diabetes: A National Population-Based Nested Case–Control Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(18):9939. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189939
Chicago/Turabian StyleChiang, Yun-Wei, Sheng-Wen Wu, Ci-Wen Luo, Shih-Pin Chen, Chun-Jung Chen, Wen-Ying Chen, Chia-Che Chang, Chuan-Mu Chen, and Yu-Hsiang Kuan. 2021. "Air Pollutant Particles, PM2.5, Exposure and Glaucoma in Patients with Diabetes: A National Population-Based Nested Case–Control Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 18: 9939. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189939