Health Risk Assessments of Selected Trace Elements and Factors Associated with Their Levels in Human Breast Milk from Pretoria, South Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population and Sample Collection
2.2. Sample Analysis
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.4. Dietary Risk Assessments
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Trace Metal Levels in Breast Milk
3.2. Estimation of Daily Intake and Risk Assessment
3.3. Correlations between Trace Elements in Breast Milk
3.4. Possible Factors Influencing Trace Metal Levels in Breast Milk
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | Co | Cr | Mn | As | Pb | Cd |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LOD | 0.018 | 0.079 | 0.003 | 0.068 | 0.005 | 0.004 |
LOQ | 0.061 | 0.264 | 0.011 | 0.226 | 0.016 | 0.015 |
%Uexp | 2.584 | 2.792 | 3.386 | 1.870 | 1.331 | 1.904 |
Trace Elements | Detection Frequency | Min | Max | Median | Mean | SD | WHO Acceptable Ranges in Breast Milk a | WHO Dietary Guideline Values b |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Co | 71% | <LOD | 0.274 | 0.023 | 0.036 | 0.044 | 0.15–0.35 | 0.40 c |
Cr | 100% | 0.300 | 5.722 | 0.501 | 0.689 | 0.773 | 0.80–1.50 | 50 |
Mn | 100% | 0.236 | 5.131 | 0.488 | 0.664 | 0.729 | 3.00–4.00 | 40 |
As | 89% | <LOD | 2.298 | 0.116 | 0.166 | 0.304 | 0.20–0.60 | 10 |
Pb | 100% | 0.054 | 1.056 | 0.090 | 0.125 | 0.143 | 2.00–5.00 | 10 |
Cd | 100% | 0.004 | 0.053 | 0.009 | 0.013 | 0.011 | <1 | 3 |
Trace Elements | Average Consumption | Upper Percentile Consumption | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
EDI | HQ | EDI | HQ | |
Co | 0.004 | 0.010 | 0.008 | 0.020 |
Cr | 0.076 | 0.002 | 0.142 | 0.003 |
Mn | 0.074 | 0.002 | 0.137 | 0.003 |
As | 0.018 | 0.002 | 0.034 | 0.003 |
Pb | 0.014 | 0.001 | 0.026 | 0.003 |
Cd | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.001 |
Mean EDI Σ6 Trace Elements | 0.187 | 0.349 |
Co | Cr | As | Pb | Cd | Mn | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Co | Correlation Coefficient | 1 | 0.300 | 0.529 | 0.337 | 0.481 | 0.689 |
Significance | 0.027 | 0.000 | 0.013 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||
Cr | Correlation Coefficient | 0.300 | 1 | 0.308 | 0.622 | 0.432 | 0.400 |
Significance | 0.027 | 0.023 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.003 | ||
As | Correlation Coefficient | 0.529 | 0.308 | 1 | 0.218 | 0.418 | 0.571 |
Significance | 0.000 | 0.023 | 0.114 | 0.002 | 0.002 | ||
Pb | Correlation Coefficient | 0.337 | 0.622 | 0.218 | 1 | 0.588 | 0.411 |
Significance | 0.013 | 0.000 | 0.114 | 0.000 | 0.002 | ||
Cd | Correlation Coefficient | 0.481 | 0.432 | 0.418 | 0.588 | 1 | 0.551 |
Significance (1-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||
Mn | Correlation Coefficient | 0.619 | 0.400 | 0.517 | 0.411 | 0.551 | 1 |
Significance (1-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Maternal Characteristics | N (%) | Co | Cr | As | Pb | Cd | Mn | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maternal Age (years): | 54 | |||||||
Maternal Weight (kg) | 54 | |||||||
Marital Status: | Single | 35 (65) | 0.037 (0.045) | 0.632 (0.300) | 0.130 (0.082) | 0.110 (0.065) | 0.014 (0.011) | 0.695 (0.838) |
Married | 12 (22) | 0.037 (0.051) | 0.885 (1.529) | 0.290 (0.633) | 0.163 (0.282) | 0.011 (0.013) | 0.616 (0.597) | |
Living with Partner | 7 (13) | 0.035 (0.021) | 0.687 (0.694) | 0.140 (0.068) | 0.142 (0.091) | 0.010 (0.004) | 0.142 (0.378) | |
Parity | Primiparous | 23 (43) | 0.048 (0.063) | 0.918 (1.138) | 0.221 (0.456) | 0.165 (0.204) | 0.015 (0.012) | 0.719 (0.525) |
Multiparous | 31 (57) | 0.028 (0.018) | 0.530 (0.236) | 0.126 (0.083) | 0.098 (0.064) | 0.012 (0.010) | 0.626 (0.867) | |
Maternal Education: | Primary | 3 (6) | 0.037 (0.022) | 0.709 (0.466) | 0.113 (0.028) | 0.117 (0.024) | 0.011 (0.003) | 0.716 (0.520) |
Secondary | 36 (67) | 0.041 (0.052) | 0.777 (0.934) | 0.191 (0.370) | 0.137 (0.173) | 0.014 (0.012) | 0.744 (0.879) | |
Tertiary | 15 (27) | 0.027 (0.015) | 0.497 (0.160) | 0.119 (0.051) | 0.103 (0.050) | 0.011 (0.010) | 0.469 (0.153) | |
Maternal Employment | Unemployed | 46 (85) | 0.039 (0.047) | 0.720 (0.835) | 0.177 (0.328) | 0.127 (0.153) | 0.008 (0.010) | 0.703 (0.790) |
Status: | Self-Employed | 2 (4) | 0.045 (0.012) | 0.708 (0.448) | 0.114 (0.005) | 0.213 (0.136) | 0.010 (0.013) | 0.437 (0.174) |
Employed | 6 (11) | 0.019 (0.013) | 0.505 (0.227) | 0.106 (0.060) | 0.089 (0.023) | 0.013 (0.002) | 0.459 (0.201) | |
Occupational Exposure | Yes | 0 | ||||||
to Chemicals/Trace Elements: | No | 8 (100) | ||||||
Monthly Household | <R5000 | 43 (80) | 0.040 (0.048) | 0.700 (0.819) | 0.179 (0.339) | 0.129 (0.157) | 0.014 (0.011) | 0.702 (0.815) |
Income (Rands): | R5000—R10,000 | 7 (17) | 0.036 (0.023) | 1.362 (1.258) | 0.180 (0.134) | 0.190 (0.112) | 0.012 (0.006) | 0.720 (0.294) |
>R10,000 | 2 (4) | 0.021 (0.009) | 0.524 (0.391) | 0.106 (0.056) | 0.099 (0.060) | 0.010 (0.009) | 0.478 (0.205) | |
Smoking During | None | 47 (87) | 0.037 (0.046) | 0.710 (0.828) | 0.170 (0.326) | 0.133 (0.153) | 0.014 (0.012) | 0.571 (0.405) |
Pregnancy | Passive Smoker | 7 (13) | 0.034 (0.021) | 0.596 (0.236) | 0.143 (0.065) | 0.079 (0.016) | 0.010 (0.003) | 0.653 (1.728) |
Smoker | 0 |
Infant Characteristics Title | N (%) | Co | Cr | As | Pb | Cd | Mn | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Infant Sex: | Male | 36 (67) | 0.043 (0.051) | 0.765 (0.930) | 0.187 (0.367) | 0.138 (0.168) | 0.015 (0.012) | 0.784 (0.871) |
Female | 18 (33) | 0.024 (0.165) | 0.557 (0.302) | 0.127 (0.097) | 0.104 (0.072) | 0.010 (0.007) | 0.429 (0.190) | |
Infant Gestation Period: | Full Term | 37 (69) | 0.040 (0.051) | 0.696 (0.884) | 0.185 (0.360) | 0.127 (0.166) | 0.012 (0.010) | 0.743 (0.860) |
Premature | 17 (31) | 0.030 (0.018) | 0.695 (0.499) | 0.127 (0.110) | 0.125 (0.082) | 0.015 (0.013) | 0.498 (0.296) | |
Infant Birth Weight (kg): | 54 | |||||||
Birth Abnormalities | None | 54 | ||||||
Estimated Feeding | Every 30 min | 6 (11) | 0.024 (0.017) | 0.582 (0.174) | 0.101 (0.037) | 0.082 (0.012) | 0.008 (0.003) | 0.496 (0.327) |
Frequency | Every Hour | 4 (7) | 0.026 (0.017) | 0.669 (0.260) | 0.109 (0.070) | 0.090 (0.019) | 0.008 (0.003) | 0.490 (0.272) |
Every 2 Hours | 16 (30) | 0.026 (0.018) | 0.669 (0.542) | 0.123 (0.073) | 0.115 (0.077) | 0.012 (0.007) | 0.782 (1.179) | |
Every 3 Hours | 28 (52) | 0.047 (0.057) | 0.739 (1.000) | 0.214 (0.416) | 0.094 (0.190) | 0.010 (0.014) | 0.661 (0.494) |
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Olowoyo, J.O.; Macheka, L.R.; Mametja, P.M. Health Risk Assessments of Selected Trace Elements and Factors Associated with Their Levels in Human Breast Milk from Pretoria, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9754. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189754
Olowoyo JO, Macheka LR, Mametja PM. Health Risk Assessments of Selected Trace Elements and Factors Associated with Their Levels in Human Breast Milk from Pretoria, South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(18):9754. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189754
Chicago/Turabian StyleOlowoyo, Joshua O., Linda R. Macheka, and Phiona M. Mametja. 2021. "Health Risk Assessments of Selected Trace Elements and Factors Associated with Their Levels in Human Breast Milk from Pretoria, South Africa" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 18: 9754. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189754